Dogwood FAQ

Should I plant flowering dogwoods? I have heard that dogwood anthracnose is devastating dogwoods and that none of them are resistant to this disease.

The native flowering dogwood is still a valuable landscape tree and is worthy of planting in the right spot. Dogwood anthracnose is caused by a fungus, Discula destructiva, that thrives in rainy, cool spring weather. A quick warmup in spring will stop the fungus in its tracks. If you plant your dogwood in a location that gets morning sun and good air circulation, it is much less likely to succumb to this disease. Dogwoods are shallow rooted and benefit greatly from some extra water in times of drought; trees stressed by drought are much more likely to be damaged by dogwood anthracnose than trees grown with ample soil moisture. It's also a good idea to remove watersprouts that grow on the trunk and large branches the fungus can use these succulent stems to travel quickly from the leaves to the inner bark, where it kills the living cambium tissue. If the fungus reaches a major branch or the trunk, it can kill the living inner bark, resulting in death of the entire tree.

I recently planted a new dogwood tree. It seemed healthy when I bought it, but the leaves soon took on a grayish white cast and puckered. What should I do?

In recent years dogwood powdery mildew has become a major threat to dogwoods. The most notable symptom of powdery mildew is a powdery white film on the leaves; usually the leaves are distorted and growth is diminished by the powdery mildew fungus. Fortunately many fungicides such as neem and horticultural oil are quite effective in controlling mildew and are not as toxic as conventional chemical fungicides. Foliage should be treated as soon as it has fully expanded to prevent the infection of powdery mildew. Repeat applications may be needed to protect the foliage from mildew through the growing season.

Don't the flowers of the native flowering dogwood, Cornus florida, grow singly?

No. The tiny yellow flowers are actually clustered tightly together in the middle of the four showy bracts. While the whole thing looks like a flower with four petals and golden stamens in the middle, it is correctly referred to as an inflorescence, which is a botanical term for a flower cluster. The bracts attract pollinating insects to the flowers that lie between them, much as petals attract pollinators to many flowers, but the bracts are modified leaves and cannot be correctly called petals. There may be as many as twenty small flowers sandwiched tightly between the four bracts.

When should I prune my dogwood?

When and how you prune your dogwood depends on what kind of dogwood you have. Shrubby dogwoods that are grown primarily for the colorful bark on the young twigs should be cut back to the ground periodically to remove less attractive older stems and promote the growth of new, colorful stems. The other dogwoods require little pruning. Dead and diseased branches should be removed as soon as they are noticed. You can the thin the branch structure of your dogwood by selectively removing crowded branches at the point where they originate from a larger branch or the trunk. You can also remove low-hanging branches. This kind of pruning, which is done to shape and thin a dogwood, is best done in late winter or early spring before new growth begins. Be very careful not to injure the bark on the trunk; it is thin and easily injured. Injured bark provides an easy entry point for dogwood borer larvae.

Can I eat the red fruits of dogwoods?

Some dogwoods produce larger fruits than others, and some are tasty and some are not. The fruits of our native flowering dogwood, Cornus florida, are not poisonous, but they do not have a very pleasing flavor. The Chinese dogwood, Cornus kousa, has spherical fruits about the size of a quarter. When ripe in midsummer, they turn coral red and develop their full flavor and sweetness, with a flavor comparable to some melons. The cornelian cherry, Cornus mas, produces a tart, elongated fruit with a hard pit in the middle and a thin layer of flesh. These bright red fruits are sometimes used to make preserves, jam, or jelly with a flavor similar to cherries.

I want to plant some dogwoods in my yard. They are common in the woodlands near my home-can't I just transplant some into my yard to save some money?

While dogwoods can be transplanted, it is difficult to transplant trees of any size from the wild. Dogwoods have shallow, far-reaching root systems, and it is difficult to get enough roots when digging a dogwood to sustain it while it is getting established in its new home. If you do get a large enough root ball, you will have disturbed a large spot in your local forest, which amounts to an invitation for woody weeds that may spread and degrade a woodland once they have gained a foothold. Another problem lies in the fact that dogwoods do not easily adapt to wide variations in light conditions. A tree that grew in the understory of the forest will most likely suffer greatly if moved into increased sunlight. Purchase a small dogwood from your favorite nursery or collect a few seeds from the dogwoods and start your own trees. Plant the seeds after removing the thin layer of pulp and place them in a pot with free-draining potting soil, water it well, and leave the seeds outdoors where they can be exposed to winter's cold. With some patience, the seeds should sprout sometime in the following growing season. They can be potted into progressively larger pots, or they can be planted directly where they are to grow.

I have some redosier dogwoods that I planted several years ago. They were beautiful for several years, but now they produce fewer red twigs. Is there anything that I can do to increase the production of red twigs?

Chop the plants back to the ground. Like most shrubby dogwoods, the redosier dogwood is perfectly adapted to severe pruning. In their native habitat, redosier is a food source for beavers and it responds to severe pruning by sending out a vigorous new flush of growth. If not pruned back every three or four years, redosier dogwood develops gray bark that is not nearly as striking as the bark on younger twigs.

Related topic: Flowering Dogwood

Source:
U.S. National Arboretum

Bonsai and Penjing FAQ

I bought a small bonsai and have had it in my living room for several months. It's failing fast - what should I do to save it?

Put it outdoors, or at least move it to an indoor location with cooler temperatures, higher humidity, and abundant sunlight. Many bonsai, such as those crafted from junipers and maples, cannot live very long in the low light and high temperatures found indoors. At the very least, bonsai should spend the growing season outdoors. Temperate species can be left outdoors all year as long as they are not subjected to repeated freezing and thawing. Tropical plants like schefflera, weeping fig, and Natal plum can be grown as bonsai inside the home, as long as you can provide enough light and humidity and moderate indoor temperatures. In the past, bonsai specimens were almost always temperate plants, but more and more tropical bonsai are being produced so those without an outdoor space for bonsai can enjoy them as well.


What's the difference between bonsai and penjing?

Bonsai and penjing are closely related art forms. Penjing takes its name from the Chinese name for miniature trees or landscape plantings and predates the development of bonsai. Even rock landscapes that lack plant materials are considered penjing. Elements of penjing eventually migrated to Japan and became known as bonsai, which is the Japanese word for miniature trees and forest plantings. Landscape stones that lack plant material are called beanstalk. In the past, penjing took on unusual shapes that were symbolic, and sometimes the styling of early penjing was far from the natural form of the plants used. Over time, bonsai slowly began to adapt a more naturalistic, free flowing style. More recently, some penjing have also come to embrace a style that echoes nature as well. Today, it is very difficult for those outside the bonsai and penjing communities to tell the difference between bonsai and penjing. Both are outstanding examples of Asian art expressed in plants and natural materials, and both forms continue to evolve.

What is ikebana?

Ikebana is the ancient Japanese art of flower arrangement. It is a disciplined art form in which rules of placement guide the flower arranger to strategically place natural materials in an appropriate container; the finished product evokes a deep appreciation for the symbolism of nature and the ikebana artist's creative expression. Many distinct schools of ikebana have evolved over the years.

What is suiseki?

Nature and time weather stones into shapes that sometimes suggest miniature landscapes, human forms, animals, or even flowers. These stones are collected by enthusiasts and are known as viewing stones. In China, they are sometimes called scholar stones. In Japan, viewing stones are called suiseki. The value of a given stone is related to its beauty, color, form, and rarity. Sometimes stones are cut to create a flat surface on the bottom, but this decreases the value of the stone. Suiseki are not usually polished or sealed; they are displayed as nature has created them. Suiseki are often displayed in a tray, or suiban, on a thin layer of sand or stone chips, or on a wooden base known as a daiza that has been carved to fit the stone.

How often should I water my bonsai or penjing piece?

We generally water our pieces once a day. In the heat of summer, they are watered more often; in winter, they are watered less frequently. Other factors, such as humidity, cloud cover, temperature, and the time that has elapsed since the last repotting are taken into account for each piece to determine whether or not it needs to be watered.

How often should bonsai pieces be repotted?

Repotting may be done as often as every year, but for older specimens, the interval may be as long as five years. Older trees need less frequent repotting; the goal is to maintain their existing proportions, with moderate growth. Bonsai specimens are repotted to refresh a portion of the soil and to renew the vigor of the plant, not to produce a noticeable increase in size.

Source:
U.S. National Arboretum

Cultivating Conifers

What conditions do I need to grow conifers?

Depending on your soil type, available sunlight, and climate, you can choose a conifer that is very likely to succeed no matter where you live. For most conifers, slightly acid soil that is loamy and well-drained is ideal. Hemlock, dawn redwood, baldcypress, and Atlantic white cedar like soil that stays consistently moist while junipers, pines, and the true cedars are well-adapted to dry conditions. Black spruce, balsam fir, and Siberian cypress are at home where winters are bitterly cold while Arizona cypress, Japanese cedar, and deodar cedar thrive in warm temperate areas. Most conifers grow best in full sun, but a bit of afternoon shade is best for the dwarf conifers in hot southern zones. Hemlock, yew, and plumyew tolerate shade well.

When and how do I plant a conifer?

It's best to plant conifers in early autumn unless you live in an area where winters are bitterly cold. In the cool days of autumn, they have more time to make root growth in moist soil. Since good drainage through the soil and ample pore spaces for air are key to the survival of conifer roots, be careful not to plant them too deeply, especially if your soil is heavy or has a lot of clay in it. If you plant a conifer that was grown in a container, prune off any roots that encircle the outside of the root ball. If it was dug and transported with burlap and twine around the root ball, remove as much of the burlap, ties, and wire as you possibly can without injuring the roots. It's best not to amend the soil in the planting site. Compost or peat moss might pamper the roots and discourage the development of a broad, expansive root system. Stake your new tree only if it is planted in a windy location, and apply a couple of inches of shredded hardwood or pine bark mulch to the root zone to preserve soil moisture. Keep the mulch at least six inches away from the trunk. Water deeply and infrequently so the soil stays evenly moist at its depths but dries out partially at the surface between waterings. After the tree has established itself and begun to grow, remove any stakes and wires that were used to support it.

What makes a dwarf conifer dwarf?

Dwarf conifers are dwarf because of their genetics. A single bud in a normal tree may change its genetics and produce a clump of densely branched, dwarf growth. These growths are called witches brooms. Other dwarf conifers originated as slow growing individuals in a population propagated from seed. Dwarf conifers are often propagated by grafting since they are usually difficult to root and will not come true from seed.

How should I prune my conifers?

Conifers, unlike many deciduous and broad-leaved trees and shrubs, should never be pruned too drastically since most of them cannot sprout new growth from old wood. Yew and baldcypress are exceptions to this general rule and can sprout new growth even if cut back severely.

Never remove more than one third of the total growth at one time, and be sure to leave some green tissue that has potential to produce new growth. Never remove all of the green portion of conifers like juniper and arborvitae by shearing them. Removal of much of the green growth can result in a permanently misshapen plant or death of the plant. Control the size of sprawling conifers by pruning the longest branches back to where they meet with a shorter branch.

Pines can be shaped and forced to produce denser growth by a pruning technique known as candling. Candles are the elongated shoots produced at the beginning of each flush of growth. After the candles are fully grown, needles grow out of the candles. The candles can branch while they are growing if they are pruned before the needles begin to emerge. Break off about two-thirds of the candle with your fingers. Don't use pruners since you are likely to damage remaining needles, causing them to look unsightly.

Source:
U.S. National Arboretum

Fern FAQ - Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Our Fronded Friends

What are ferns? Why don’t they have flowers and fruits?

Ferns are an ancient group of plants dating back about 300 million years. They are most closely related to mosses and liverworts. They never have flowers and fruits but instead reproduce by spores typically produced on the lower side of the fronds or ‘leaves’ or on specialized spore-bearing fronds.

Do ferns make good garden plants?

Ferns make good, low maintenance garden plants that have surprisingly few pests and diseases. Many ferns prefer light to moderate shade, somewhat moist conditions and soil rich in organic matter. Ferns are adapted to a wide variety of conditions–some ferns prefer dry rocky sites or wet marshy conditions while others thrive in limestone-rich soils. There are garden ferns for just about every condition you encounter in a garden. In fact, there are over 500 kinds of hardy ferns that can be grown in American gardens.

Are there any evergreen ferns? That is, are there any that have nice green fronds present even in the winter months?

Depending upon where you live, many ferns are evergreen and add color and interest during the winter months when most flowering plants are dormant. Some popular evergreen ferns used in outdoor gardens include the Christmas fern, Polystichum acrostichoides; tassel fern, Polystichum polyblepharum; Scott’s fern, Dryoptris scottii, and wavy-edged hart’s tongue fern, Phyllitis (Asplenium) scolpendrum.

I have a native plant garden. Are there good native ferns I can grow in my garden?

There is an abundance of ferns for you to choose from. If you have a low wet area, the cinnamon fern, Osmunda cinnamonea; royal fern, Osmunda regalis; different species of Phyllitis and Athyrium might do well in your garden. The maidenhair ferns, Adiantum peltatum and Adiantum capillus-veneris, are beautiful, relatively small, delicate plants that are also used in moist shaded areas. Suitable moderate to larger sized ferns include male fern, Dryopteris filix-mas; marginal wood fern, Dryopteris marginalis; Virginia polypody, Polypodium virginianum; the Christmas fern, Polystichium acrostichoides; and broad beech fern, Thelypteris hexagonoptera. The giant chain fern, Woodwardia fimbriata, is an attractive plant often used in West Coast gardens. In sunny dry rocky sites, gardeners may use one of several species of lip or wavy cloak ferns, Cheilanthes species. Some species of Dryopteris and Thelypteris thrive in sunny areas once established.

What ferns can be used to add more color in my shade garden?

There are many forms of the Japanese painted fern, Athyrium nipponicum ‘Pictum’. They have varying degrees of green, dark red, and gray variegation on their fronds and, as a result, they are very popular plants in shade gardens. The variegated holly fern, Arachnoides simplicior var. variegata, has dark green fronds with a greenish yellow band running along the center of the main vein. The young uncoiling fronds of the autumn fern, Dryopteris erythrosora, are a beautiful bronze color and add color in early spring. The black stems of the maidenhair ferns, Adiantum species, contrast strikingly with the light green fronds. When present, the bright cinnamon-colored, spore-bearing, specialized fronds of the cinnamon fern, Osmunda cinnamomea, stand out against the large green, sterile leafy fronds.

My garden is in a sunny location and is fairly dry. Are there any ferns suitable for these conditions?

Definitely! There are several ferns that will generally thrive in sunny sites. If it is a dry sunny site, members of lip fern or cloak fern genus, Cheilanthes, may be good candidates. The small Asian fern, Cheilanthes argentea, is a beautiful plant with whitish fronds that have striking whitish undersides. The native hairy lip fern, Cheilanthes lanosa, and the wavy cloak fern, Cheilanthes sinuata, are good for native plant gardens. Wetter sunny sites may be ideal for the marsh fern, Thelypteris palustris, a spreading plant that grows to 0.6 to 0.8 meters high. The golden-scaled male fern, Dryopteris affinis, is a tall plant (about a meter high) that is easy to grow. Another adaptable fern is the male fern, Dryopteris filix-mas, with many selected horticultural forms available in the nursery trade. The European lady fern, Athyrium felix-femina, is also an easy to grow, common garden fern. This fern has many horticultural forms principally with variations of the form and shape of the fronds.

Are any ferns prone to be invasive? If I plant them will they take over my garden?

The bracken fern, Pteridium aquilinum, has long, spreading underground rhizomes that give it a fairly aggressive nature. This fern can be invasive in disturbed sites including sunny locations. Also, the New York fern, Thelypteris noveboracensis, is a common native fern in the northeastern United States but it can become an aggressive grower in woodland gardens because of its far-reaching underground root-like rhizomes. In Florida, the Old World climbing fern, Lygodium microphyllum, and the Japanese climbing fern, Lygodium japonicum, are invasive.

Is it all right just to go into the nearby woods or forest and dig up a few ferns for my garden?

No! You may be depleting natural populations of these ferns. It is better to purchase them from quality nurseries that sell ferns that have been nursery propagated and grown commercially. Nurseries specializing in perennials may have 20 to 30 different ferns to choose from. Many ferns can be divided and shared from established gardens. If a friend has a shade garden with ferns ask if they will share plants when they are moving plants or thinning out established beds.

Are asparagus ferns and sweet ferns really ferns? My local nursery sells both but they don’t look like many other ferns.

You are very observant. Neither of these are ferns at all but are true flowering plants. The asparagus fern, Asparagus setaceus, is a close relative of the edible asparagus and produces tiny white flowers and purplish black fruits. The numerous leaves are very small, bright green and produced on long branches. These branches or sprays are often used in cut flower arrangements. The sweet fern, Comptonia peregrina, is a small shrub native to the northeastern United States. It is a member of the bayberry family. The tiny flowers are inconspicuous as are the small fruits. But the leaves do somewhat resemble some fern leaves. They both are nice garden plants.

Source:
U.S. National Arboretum

San Francisco Bay Area Community Gardens

The following pages list community gardening resources in the San Francisco Bay Area of Northern California.

• Alameda Community Gardens

• Berkeley Community Gardens

• Oakland Community Gardens

• San Francisco Community Gardens

• San Jose Community Gardens

• Walnut Creek Community Gardens

Got additional Bay Area community garden resources to suggest? Please submit them via the "Comments" link below. Thanks for visiting!

The U.S. Forest Service: An Overview

Established in 1905, the Forest Service is an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture that manages public lands in national forests and grasslands. National forests and grasslands encompass 193 million acres of land, which is an area equivalent to the size of Texas.

The Forest Service's main activities include:

• Protecting and managing the natural resources on National Forest Service lands.

• Researching all aspects of forestry, rangeland management, and forest resource utilization.

• Providing community assistance and cooperation with state and local governments, forest industries, and private landowners to help protect and manage non-federal forest, range, and watershed lands to improve conditions in rural areas.

• Coordinating U.S. support for the protection and sound management of the world's forest resources, and providing international assistance.

Visit the U.S. Forest Service site.

Source: FirstGov

Visiting the National Arboretum in Washington, D.C.

The National Arboretum is a peaceful natural area in Washington, D.C. Yet it also is an active center for both scientific research and public education.

Many people who come to Washington are surprised when they first visit the United States National Arboretum. The Arboretum is only a short drive from the center of the city. However, visitors often feel like they are far from the busy American capital.

The National Arboretum covers 180 hectares of green space in the northeast part of Washington. The area is famous for its beautiful flowers, tall trees and other plants. About 9000 different kinds of plants and trees grow there.

An arboretum is a place where trees and plants are grown for scientific and educational purposes. The National Arboretum was established by an act of Congress in 1927. Today, the United States Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Research Service operates the Arboretum.

The goal of the Arboretum is to carry out studies and provide education in an effort to improve the environment. The goal includes protecting trees, flowers and other plants and showing them to the public.

The National Arboretum is a popular stop for visitors to Washington. The grounds are open every day of the year except December 25, the Christmas holiday. Admission to the Arboretum is free.

As many as 600,000 people visit the Arboretum grounds each year. Hundreds of thousands also visit with the help of computers. They use the Arboretum’s Internet web site to learn about how to care for plants and current research programs. Visit the Arboretum online.

Director Thomas Elias says Arboretum officials would like to see even more visitors. He says they believe that many people do not know it exists.

Part of the problem may result from the fact that the Arboretum is about 5 kilometers, or around 3 miles, from the closest train station. Many famous places in Washington are a short walk from Metrorail, the city’s local train system.

The Arboretum is easy to reach by automobile or bus, however. About 15 kilometers, or just over 9 miles, of roads have been built on the property. The roads connect to major collections and seasonal flowers.

The Arboretum also welcomes people on bicycles. Disabled people or those who want to walk only short distances may visit four beautiful areas that are close to each other. People who like longer walks will enjoy the many pathways on the property.

The Arboretum has a small gift store that sells books and other items. Currently, there is no place where you can buy food to eat on the grounds. But, visitors often bring food and enjoy a meal there.

The Department of Agriculture recently announced plans for an addition to the Arboretum. American and Chinese officials have agreed to build a traditional Chinese garden on the property. It will cover an area of almost 5 hectares.

Former Agriculture Secretary Ann Veneman said the project would increase the American people’s understanding of Chinese garden culture. She said it also would give American scientists a new way to study plants and flowers from China.

A joint team from the two countries is designing the project. Part of the garden will include a small area of fresh water and traditional Chinese buildings. The buildings will have wooden objects similar to those from the Ching and Ming periods of China’s history. Examples of traditional handwriting and artwork will be shown there.

Chinese officials say the garden is a gift from the Chinese people to the American people.

Scientists at the Arboretum have developed many of the trees and flowers now found in the United States and other countries. Over the years, the Arboretum and the Agricultural Research Service have released almost 700 different plants. Each year, they offer several new plants.

Scientists there also have developed virus-resistant plants with processes of genetic engineering.

The Sun Valley red maple is one such example. It was developed as part of a project to study the genetic qualities of leaf color and insect resistance. The tree produces leaves that remain bright red late into autumn. It was tested in the state of Maryland. The Sun Valley maple kept its colorful leaves for about two weeks before they fell to the ground. The tree also resisted the potato leafhopper, an insect that feeds on the leaves of trees.

Arboretum scientists have another important goal: to develop cleaner and safer methods to protect and support plant growth. Environmental laws and public opinion against the use of chemical products for killing insects has increased. Arboretum scientists have worked with chemical companies to create products that use natural substances to deal with insects. They call such substances, biopesticides.

The Agricultural Research Service operates a number of centers and laboratories across the United States. The National Arboretum is best known for its beauty. Visitors can always find flowering plants. You can start looking for flowers in the Arboretum’s Asian Collections, Friendship Garden and National Boxwood Collection.

There also are some very useful plants at the Arboretum, such as those found in its herb garden. Officials say it is the largest designed herb garden in the world.

Herbs can be used in many kinds of food and drinks, but others are medicinal. Herbs also can change the way things smell or add color to cloth. Every plant in the Herb Garden, even the trees, is an herb. The garden contains one hundred different kinds of peppers alone.

The Arboretum also boasts an extensive bonsai collection. Bonsai is the art of growing small plants or trees in a container. It is an ancient Asian tradition. The National Bonsai and Penjing Museum at the Arboretum has one of the largest collections of these plants in North America.

Officials say it would be difficult for the Arboretum to operate as well as it does without the support of private organizations. The Arboretum has about 100 employees. Yet it depends on many other people who offer their time and effort without payment.

For example, the Friends of the National Arboretum is a non-profit group that provides financial support. The money is used for Arboretum training programs, the gardens and collections and special projects. The group also reports to Congress about the Arboretum’s special needs.

Another support organization is the National Capital Area Foundation of Garden Clubs. The group has its headquarters at the Arboretum. Its members offer their time to help with the Arboretum’s plant collection. They also serve as guides for visitors. They help thousands of people enjoy the National Arboretum, this beautiful natural area in the nation’s capital.

Related topic:
Two New Lilacs Debut at National Arboretum

Source:
VOA News Service
Authors: George Grow and Caty Weaver
First published: April 12, 2005

Corn Breeding Methods

Since ancient times, farmers have chosen the best examples from each crop to provide seed for the next year. This method is called mass selection. Mass selection produces plants with similar genetic qualities over time.

A method called pure-line breeding is similar. But it is more systematic. In pure-line breeding, the best plants are chosen from a crop that has many different genetic qualities.

The seeds from these plants are grown. Then the best plants are chosen from the new crop. This process can go on for many years, until the seeds produce plants with measurable similarities and desirable qualities. Seed companies may use this method to produce seed for some crops.

But the pure-line method is not often used with widely traded crops. Today major crops like corn or wheat are developed as hybrids.

About one hundred years ago, a scientist in the United States, G.H. Shull, made important discoveries about corn hybrids.

He mated corn with itself. Corn does not normally fertilize itself in nature. If corn is inbred, the seeds will produce a plant that clearly shows the qualities of the parent. But this inbreeding does not produce a strong plant.

Shull found that if he mated two inbred corn plants, they would produce a strong line with the good qualities of the parent plants. This is called crossbreeding.

Researchers soon recognized that they could crossbreed four inbred lines of corn. This "double cross" results in stronger corn with the best qualities of the parent plants. This is the way most hybrid corn is developed.

Modern hybrid corn produces much more grain than its ancestors. But success can create its own problems. For example, there is very little genetic difference in the corn grown across the United States. Experts estimate that current hybrids use less than five percent of the genetic diversity that exists.

There is a project called Germplasm Enhancement of Maize, or GEM. It is a cooperative effort to increase the genetic diversity in corn. The project involves the Department of Agriculture, sixteen universities and twenty international companies.

Genetically Engineered Rice Varieties Cut Use of Pesticides

A study in China suggests that two kinds of genetically engineered rice can reduce the costs, and dangers, of using pesticides.

One kind of rice includes a gene found in the bacterium known as Bt. Bt lives in soil and on plants; it is a natural insecticide. It is poisonous to some kinds of insects. Bt maize is commonly planted in the United States. The other kind of rice was engineered to resist insects with a gene from the cowpea plant.

The two-year study involved tests of Bt rice in Hubei province and cowpea rice in Fujian. Scientists collected information from small farms already testing insect-resistant rice without technical aid. Some farmers are growing both insect-resistant and traditional rice.

The scientists found that the Bt rice produced six to nine percent more grain than other kinds of rice. The cowpea rice, based on fewer observations, did not appear to increase productivity.

Still, the findings show that resistance to insects improved for both kinds of rice. The study says farmers used eighty percent less insecticide than usual.

Science magazine published the findings. Jikun Huang led the study. He is director of the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy, in the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

The study notes that no country has yet released a major food grain crop that has been genetically changed. Engineered crops are now used mostly for animal feed and products like cotton.

The Chinese farmers in the study made their own decisions about when to use insecticides. Those with traditional rice crops used chemicals almost four times per growing season on average. But farmers with the insect-resistant rice used insecticides an average of less than once per season.

Less insecticide meant fewer sick farmers. The study says the farmers growing insect-resistant rice did not report any health problems from the use of poisons.

China has not approved genetically engineered rice for market. But a report from Hubei last month said insect-resistant rice appears to have been sold illegally for the last two years. That report came from the environmental group Greenpeace, which oppose genetic engineering. China says it is investigating the Greenpeace report.

Some countries will not import genetically engineered foods. Not everyone is sure that such products are safe for people or the environment.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: May 9, 2005

Protecting Crops with Pest-Controlling Plants

There are a variety of ways that farmers and gardeners can use plants to protect their crops from pests and diseases without resorting to chemical controls. For instance, some plants provide food and protection for insects that help control harmful insects.

Ladybugs are beneficial beetles that like crimson clover and hairy vetch. They find food, water and a resting place in the clover and vetch. Ladybug larvae eat harmful aphids, tiny insects that feed on many different kinds of crop plants.

Plants also help each other through their root systems. For example, scientists say the roots of the marigold flower reduce harmful nematode populations in the soil. Nematodes are tiny worms. There are more than ten-thousand different kinds of nematodes. And some of them feed on corn.

Wild mustard is another plant that releases a poison through its roots. This poison kills nematodes. It also kills some kinds of fungi.

A researcher at the University of California, Santa Cruz, said the wild mustard should be cut close to the ground after the first fifteen days. After that, it should be cut once a month. If left to grow freely, wild mustard will compete with the corn for nutrients in the soil.

Canadian researchers discovered that the dandelion weed can protect tomato plants from fusarium disease. Fusarium attacks the plant roots. It reduces the number of tomatoes that the plant produces.

Dandelion roots produce cichoric acid. This acid prevents the disease from getting iron from the soil. Fusarium needs iron to survive.

There are, however, plants that should never be grown together. The roots of the black walnut tree, for example, produce a poison that kills potatoes, peas, tomatoes and peppers.

Dying parts of the brassica family of plants produce a poison that prevents the seeds of some plants from growing. Brassica plants include broccoli, cabbage and cauliflower.

Plants with small seeds, such as lettuce, are especially affected by the brassica poison. A professor at the University of Connecticut said brassica plants should be removed from the soil after they have produced their crop.

Related topics:
Plants Invite Insect Allies to Dine on Pests
Try Natural Pest Control with These Insect-Repelling Plants

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Bob Bowen
First published: April 1, 2005

No-Till Farming Gains Ground

Since ancient times, farmers in many cultures have prepared the land for growing crops. They used plows to turn the soil in their fields. This is called tilling. Now, a method called no-till farming is gaining popularity all over the world on big and small farms.

Plows cut into the soil and lift up the remains of last season’s crops and unwanted plants. The process brings air into the soil so dead plant material breaks down quickly to form natural fertilizer.

But plowing can cause severe damage to topsoil by removing the plants that protect the soil from being blown or washed away. Plowing also can reduce the amount of water in soil.

Over the last several years, farmers have sought ways to protect soil by avoiding unneeded tilling. This has been called conservation tillage, low-till farming or no-till farming. Soybeans, wheat, corn, and cotton are crops often farmed without tilling. But many other crops can be grown this way.

No-till farming is already used in many countries. Pioneer Hi-Bred International and the Conservation Technology Information Center did a study on no-till farming. The study said the United States leads the world in the number of hectares of no-till farming.

About twenty-six million hectares of land are not tilled in the United States. There are about ninety million no-till hectares around the world. In South America, no-till farming is growing quickly, especially in Brazil and Argentina.

The agriculture magazine, Farm Journal, says South American farmers have a good reason to use no-till farming. The magazine says there are fewer government programs supporting common tilling methods.

No-till farming is less costly and improves the soil over time. It saves money because farmers do not operate farm machines to plow soil. This saves fuel, time and labor.

No-till farmers in some climates use cover crops, like alfalfa. Cover crops protect the soil when crops are not being grown.

Farm Journal says that farmers using no-till methods must understand the risks. No-till farming can result in a smaller crop some years. But over time, crops will increase because soil quality improves.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: April 4, 2005

Preventing Black Raspberry Decline

A new virus associated with black raspberry decline has been identified by USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists in Oregon, the nation's primary producer of black raspberries.

According to research leader and plant pathologist Robert Martin, with the ARS Horticultural Crops Research Unit at Corvallis, Ore., decline is generally a symptom of a virus complex. However, plants infected with the newly identified black raspberry decline-associated virus (BRDaV) will show symptoms even if the plant has no other diseases.

Black raspberries are a delicious source of ellagic acid, vitamin C, antioxidants, anthocyanins and other important nutrients. In affected plants, BRDaV causes yellow, puckered and spotted leaves, yield reduction and cane dieback—the gradual death of shoots, branches and roots, from the tip inward.

Decline shortens a plant's life expectancy from several decades to three to four years, with severe economic repercussions. Identifying BRDaV as a cause of decline is an important step towards controlling the disease. Martin and his colleagues have obtained genetic information on 17 berry viruses, including BRDaV.

The team learned that BRDaV hitches a ride on the raspberry aphid Amphorophora agathonica. In fact, spread rates appear to be directly related to aphid numbers. This suggests that controlling the aphid population could slow the disease's proliferation.

The Corvallis researchers also learned that BRDaV can infect other commercial and native Rubus berry plants—such as blackberry and raspberry—without triggering symptoms, making isolation from other commercial berry plantings an important part of any disease-control strategy.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Author: Laura McGinnis
First published: June 1, 2006

Trees and Shrubs

The following posts cover topics related to deciduous, evergreen, coniferous, hardwood and softwood trees and shrubs.

• 2000-Year-Old Date Palm Seed Sprouts into Sapling

• American Red Raspberry

• Balsam Fir

• Common Persimmon

• Dealing with Hazardous Defects in Trees

• Evergreen Huckleberry

• Flowering Dogwood

• Golden Currant

• Highbush Blueberry

• Scientists Discover City Tree Grows Twice as Large as Country Clone

• Sugar Maple

• Two New Lilacs Debut at the U.S. National Arboretum

• Western Redwoods Endangered by Killer Microbe

• The Wollemi Pine: Rare Conifer Dates Back to Jurassic Age

Vegetables and Vegetable Gardening

The following posts cover topics related to growing, preserving, preparing, eating, and the nutritional value of vegetables.

• The Black Pearl Pepper: Beauty With a Bite

• Legumes Provide Nutrition for People - and Soil

• Fortified Sweet Potato Provides a Vitamin A Boost to Help Fight Malnutrition

• Growing Vegetables in Shade

• Scientists develop method to grow fruits and vegetables in extreme climates

Health and Nutrition

The following posts cover topics related to health and nutritional benefits of fruits, vegetables, grains, and other plant products.

• Cherries Boast Anti-Inflammatory Benefits

• Discovering Medicinal Plants

• Fortified Sweet Potato Provides a Vitamin A Boost to Help Fight Malnutrition

• Legumes Provide Nutrition for People - and Soil

• New Muscadine Grape Offers Improved Flavor, Health Benefits

• Scientists Search for Healthy Uses for Tobacco

• US Botanic Garden Exhibits Medicinal Plants

Fruits and Berries

The following posts cover topics related to planting, cultivating, processing, preserving, and consuming fruits and berries.

• 2000-Year-Old Date Palm Seed Sprouts into Sapling
  
• Advice on thinning fruit
• American Red Raspberry
• Common Persimmon Fact Sheet
• Cranberries: A Little Fruit With Big Appeal
  
• Popular Banana Variety At Risk
• Highbush Blueberry Fact Sheet
• Evergreen Huckleberry Fact Sheet

Cherries

• Cherries Boast Anti-Inflammatory Benefits
• Wild About Cherries
  

Currants

• Golden Currant Fact Sheet
• Growing currants from cuttings
  

Grapes

• New Muscadine Grape Offers Improved Flavor, Health Benefits
• New "Scarlet Royal" Seedless Grape Variety Makes Its Debut

Strawberries

• Beach Strawberry Fact Sheet
• Wood Strawberry Fact Sheet
• Why are strawberries called strawberries?

Lawn Care and Maintenance

The following posts cover topics related to planting and maintaining a healthy lawn.

• Tips for Choosing a Lawn Care Service
  
  
• Best Mowing Methods
  
  
• Tips for Watering Your Lawn and Garden
  
  
• Tips for Selecting and Applying Fertilizer
  
  
• Developing Healthy Soil
  
  
• Environmentally-Friendly Landscaping Tips

Pests and Diseases

The following posts cover topics related to plant pests, pest control, plant diseases, and disease prevention and treatment.

• Protecting Crops with Pest-Controlling Plants


• Plants Invite Insect Allies to Dine on Pests
  
  
• Insects Devouring Your Garden? Call in the Ladybugs
  
  
• Try Natural Pest Control with These Insect-Repelling Plants
  
  
• Tips for Choosing a Lawn Care Service
  
  
• Western Redwoods Endangered by Killer Microbe
  

Cereals, Grains, and Grasses

The following posts cover topics related to cereal crops, grains, grasses, and related plants.

• Corn Breeding Methods
• Genetically Engineered Rice Cuts Pesticide Use
• Scientists Complete a Genetic Map of Rice
• Ethanol Fuel Opens New Markets for Corn
• Scientists Study Feasibility of Switchgrass for Ethanol and Energy Production
• Switchgrass Fact Sheet
• The Quest for Perennial Grains
  

Compost, Fertilizer, and Soil Amendments

The following posts cover topics related to soil improvement and enrichment through the use of compost, organic and chemical fertilizers, and other soil amendments.

• Composting to Improve Soil and Crops
  
  
• Composting Tips
  
  
• Getting the Most Out of Organic Fertilizer
  
  
• Legumes Provide Nutrition for People - and Soil
  
  
• Don't Know Much About Mulch?
  
  
• Lawn Care Tips: Developing Healthy Soil
  
  
• Tips for Selecting and Applying Fertilizer
  

Composting to Improve Soil and Crops

Many farmers improve their soil, and their crops, with compost. Composting is the mixing of plant or animal wastes so they break down and produce simpler substances that make the soil rich.

Compost is an example of a natural fertilizer. Farmers add compost to their soil instead of burning the plant and animal wastes or throwing them away.

During the growing season, plants take gases from the air such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They combine these gases with minerals from the soil.

After the growing season ends, many parts of the plant die. Farmers gather a large amount of dead plant materials into compost piles. They may add animal wastes. They must add water so the materials will break down, or decay.

Soon the plants are attacked by insects and organisms including worms and bacteria. Oxygen helps the organisms change the plant materials more rapidly. The plants decay into a mixture that can be spread on the farmland where the crops are growing. The compost returns nutrients to the soil.

Some rules need to be followed to produce the best quality compost. Good compost piles need water to speed the process of decay. Yet the piles should not be too wet or the plant material will be ruined.

Compost must reach a temperature of fifty to sixty degrees Celsius. At these temperatures, harmful organisms are killed and material is correctly broken down. It takes three to seven months to produce ready-to-use compost from raw compost material. You can turn the pile over and over to help cool down the material. Turning the compost pile over adds more oxygen to the mixture which helps it decay.

Sometimes small animals such as rats and mice like to eat the composting materials. This can be prevented if you add a thin amount of soil to the top of the compost pile.

Related topic: Composting Tips

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Gary Garriott
First published: July 4, 2005

Understanding Grafting

We often think of agriculture as planting seeds and harvesting crops. But many crops do not come from seeds. Many kinds of trees and plants are grown from pieces cut from existing trees and plants. This is called grafting.

Farmers cut branches or young growths, called buds, from one plant and place them on a related kind of plant. The branch or bud that is grafted is called a scion (pronounced SY-uhn). The plant that accepts the graft is called the root stock.

Over time, the parts from the two plants grow together. The grafted plant begins to produce the leaves and fruit of the scion, not the root stock.

A graft can be cut in several ways. A cleft graft, for example, requires a scion with several buds on it. The bottom of the scion is cut in the shape of the letter V. A place is cut in the root stock to accept the scion. The scion is then securely placed into the cut on the root stock. Material called a growth medium is put on the joint to keep it wet and help the growth.

Grafting can join scions with desirable qualities to root stock that is strong and resists disease and insects. Smaller trees can be grafted with older scions. The American Environmental Protection Agency says grafting can reduce the need to use pesticides on crops. The E.P.A. found that grafting stronger plants cost less than using chemicals. Also, poisons can be dangerous to people and the environment.

Agriculture could not exist as we know it without grafting. Many fruits and nuts have been improved through this method. Some common fruit trees such as sweet cherries and McIntosh apples have to be grafted.

Bing cherries, for example, are one of the most popular kinds of cherries. But a Bing cherry tree is not grown from seed. Branches that produce Bing cherries must be grafted onto root stock. All sweet cherries on the market are grown this way.

And then there are seedless fruits like navel oranges and seedless watermelons. Have you ever wondered how farmers grow them? The answer is: through grafting.

The grapefruit tree is another plant that depends on grafting to reproduce. Grapes, apples, pears and also flowers can be improved through grafting. In an age of high-technology agriculture, grafting is a low-technology method that remains extremely important.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: August 9, 2005

Scientists Complete a Genetic Map of Rice

Scientists now know a lot more about a grain that people have eaten for ten thousand years. Research teams around the world have completed a map of the genes of rice. Such a map is called a genome. The findings appeared last week in the magazine Nature.

The map represents 95% of the rice genome. And the information is considered 99.99% correct.

The aim is to speed up the improvement of rice. The scientists warn that the kinds of rice plants used now have reached the limit of their productivity. Yet world rice production must grow by an estimated thirty percent in the next twenty years to meet demand.

In their paper, the researchers say rice is an excellent choice for genetic mapping and engineering. Rice genes have only about three hundred ninety million chemical bases. That might sound like a lot. But other major food grains have thousands of millions.

The new map could better explain not just rice. Rice shares a common ancestor with other crops in the grass family. These include corn and wheat.

Also, rice shares more than 70% of its genes with Arabidopsis. This plant is in the mustard family. Its genome was completed in 2000.

Genes produce proteins which guide the building of organisms. Genes are placed along chromosomes. Rice has twelve chromosomes. The scientists found almost thirty-eight thousand genes. By comparison, studies have found only about twenty-five thousand genes in humans.

The International Rice Genome Sequencing Project in Tsukuba, Japan, led the research. The effort started in 1998.

The Rice Genome Research Program in Japan supervised the mapping of about half of the genome. American researchers were responsible for three chromosomes. Chinese and Taiwanese researchers mapped one each. A French group mapped one and part of another. Researchers in Brazil, Britain France, India, South Korea and Thailand also took part.

The project was expected to take ten years. But the work was finished in six because many of the groups shared information and technology. Two companies, Monsanto of the United States and Syngenta of Switzerland, also shared their research.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: August 15, 2005

Plants Invite Insect Allies to Dine on Pests

Students are taught at an early age about how insects help plants reproduce. Schoolchildren learn that plants release sweet juices, or nectar, through small openings inside the flower. These small openings are called nectaries.

The sweet-smelling nectar appeals to bees and other insects so they go to the plant. While the bee is drinking the sweet nectar, the hairs on its legs become covered with pollen. The bee flies to another flower and drops some of the pollen there.

During a flight, the bee usually visits several male and several female flowers. In this way, flowers are able to reproduce.

Many plants, however, release nectar for another purpose. Scientists have known about it for more than one hundred years.

The second way plants release nectar does not involve flowers. The nectar is contained in extrafloral nectaries. They are found on the tops of leaves, where the leaf and stem come together.

Trees that have extrafloral nectaries include the peach, poplar, viburnum, black locust and wild cherry.

Extrafloral nectaries are often smaller than a grain of salt. Researchers say the sweet juices released in them are not used to help the plant reproduce. Instead, they are used to get some insects to come to the plant to help control harmful insects.

Scientists have known for many years that tiny ants feed on the sweet juices released by the extrafloral nectaries. But only in more recent years did they make discoveries involving other insects.

Back in 1984 there was a report about extrafloral nectaries in Agricultural Research magazine. The magazine is published by the United States Agriculture Department. It reported that two government scientists, Robert Pemberton and Jang-hoon Lee, had studied extrafloral nectaries for two years. They looked for ways to control gypsy moths.

They did their research in forests near the South Korean capital, Seoul. During their research, they discovered that two helpful insects liked the extrafloral nectaries.

In fact, the insects killed two times more gypsy moths on trees that had the extrafloral nectaries than on those that did not. The insects are the Cotesia melanoscelus wasp and the Parasetigena silvestris fly.

A third insect, the Blepharipa schineri fly, also improved its control of gypsy moths on trees with extrafloral nectaries.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Bob Bowen
First published: November 7, 2005

Getting the Most Out of Organic Fertilizer

There are many different products that farmers can use to add nutrients to soil. Organic fertilizers usually come from animal waste, plant material or treated wastewater.

Farmers who raise animals have a ready-made fertilizer to mix into the soil. However, animal waste must be treated in order to make good fertilizer.

Composting is a natural method. It uses the action of bacteria and other organisms to break down the manure into fertilizer. The manure must be mixed with a material that provides carbon, such as wood cuttings. The carbon supports the growth of the organisms.

It is important to mix in enough carbon-supplying material. If there is too little, nitrogen in the waste will release ammonia gas and smell terrible.

Composting also requires the right amount of water and air. The compost material should be loose and easy to turn with hand tools. The compost should be about fifty to sixty percent water. Too much water will mean that air cannot reach all the material. This will cool the compost. It will slow the organic activity and cause a bad smell. Too little water will also stop the activity.

The process of composting produces heat. If conditions are good, the compost material should reach about fifty to sixty degrees Celsius. This heat kills dangerous organisms in the animal waste. Experts say all of them will be killed if the material stays at fifty-five degrees for fourteen days.

It takes three to seven months for compost to become ready to use as fertilizer. After this time, the material will have lost twenty to sixty percent of its mass.

Waste products provide one fertilizer resource. Some crops supply limited amounts of nutrients to the soil. Beans release nitrogen. Crops like alfalfa can be left to break down.

There are many different kinds of manufactured fertilizers. The most commonly used mineral fertilizers are nitrogen-based. Nitrogen from the air is mixed with hydrogen from natural gas. This process produces ammonia gas. Other elements are then added to the ammonia.

Different crops demand different mixtures of nutrients. Many farmers invest in special fertilizers designed just for the kinds of crops they grow.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: August 22, 2005

Nonprofit Seed Savers Exchange Helps Gardeners Save Seeds of Rare Plants

In 1975, a young husband and wife in the United States began an organization to save seeds from rare plants. Diane and Kent Whealy established the Seed Savers Exchange. They still work there, though they are no longer married.

The Seed Savers Exchange operates Heritage Farm in Decorah, Iowa, in the Midwest. The farm has grown to three hundred fifty-six hectares.

Before Diane Whealy's grandfather died, he gave her a few seeds from three plants he loved. The plants had been brought from northern Germany in the late eighteen hundreds. One grew pink tomatoes that tasted sweet. Another was a climbing bean. The third grew a morning glory flower with a red star.

When immigrants left Europe for America, many brought their best seeds with them. Many of those seeds were lost now. The seeds from Diane Whealy's grandfather gave the Whealys the idea to start the Seed Savers Exchange.

The organization describes its farm as a living museum of heirloom plants. It defines heirlooms as any garden plant passed down over time within a family, just like a piece of jewelry.

More than twenty-four thousand kinds of rare vegetables are in the permanent collection at Heritage Farm. These include four thousand traditional kinds from Eastern Europe and Russia. About ten percent of each crop is grown every summer, to produce fresh seeds.

Also, there are thousands of vegetables, fruits, grains, flowers and herbs that members of the exchange can buy from each other. These are listed each year in a yearbook. People who are not members can order from seed catalogs also published by the organization.

Big seed companies sell mostly hybrid seeds that cannot reproduce themselves. So people must buy new seeds each year.

Seed Savers calls itself an organized link for gardeners who want to protect the food supply through biodiversity. The idea is to grow many kinds of plants so one disease cannot harm them all.

The group says current best sellers include German extra hardy garlic and the Mexican sour gherkin cucumber. They also include Russian giant garlic and Georgian crystal garlic. In fact, there are lots of kinds of garlic, because the exchange ships garlic in September and October.

Seed Savers can be found on the Web at seedsavers.org.

Related topic:
Norway Plans to Store Seeds of All the World's Crops

Source:
VOA News Service
First published: September 5, 2005

Popular Banana Variety At Risk

In recent years, some concerns have been raised about the health of the world’s banana plants. A number of media reports have said that bananas may completely disappear. Some claimed that this could happen in as little as ten years. Such fears are disputed, however.

Bananas are one of the world’s most important food crops. They are also one of the most valuable exports. Bananas do not grow from seeds. Instead, they grow from existing plants. Bananas are threatened by disease because all the plants on a farm are copies of each other. They all share the same genetic weaknesses.

For example, the Cavendish banana is most popular in North American and European markets. However, some kinds of fungus organisms easily infect the Cavendish. Black Sigatoka disease affects the leaves of Cavendish banana plants. The disease is controlled on large farms by putting chemicals on the plant’s leaves. Farmers put anti-fungal chemicals on their crops up to once a week.

Another fungal disease is more serious. Panama disease attacks the roots of the banana plant. There is no chemical treatment for this disease. Infected plants must be destroyed. Panama disease has affected crops in Southeast Asia, Australia and South Africa. There is concern that it may spread to bananas grown in the Americas. This could threaten an important export product for Central and South America.

The International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain supports research on bananas. The group has headquarters in France and other offices in the major banana-growing areas of the world. The group says that more research must be done to develop improved kinds of bananas.

The group says that fungal diseases mainly affect only one kind of banana. In fact, there are five hundred different kinds of bananas. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization has said that the Cavendish banana represents only ten percent of world production.

The U.N. agency says farmers should grow different kinds of bananas. This protects against diseases that affect only one kind. Experts warn that disease may cause the Cavendish banana to disappear. This happened earlier to another popular banana because of its genetic weakness against disease.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: September 19, 2005

Tips for Growing Tomatoes

Plant scientists consider them fruit. Most other people think of them as vegetables. Whatever you call tomatoes, there are many different kinds of this popular and healthy food.

Each plant can produce about four to seven kilograms of fruit. Growers can harvest a big crop with little space. Full plants with fruit take about eighty days to grow from seed. Cold weather can damage young plants, so they are often grown inside for four to six weeks.

A tomato plant can grow several thick stems from its base. Only two or three stems should be kept. From the stems come smaller growths called suckers. New suckers that grow between the stems should be removed. There should be a full meter between plants with three stems, a little less for plants with two stems.

There are two general groups of plants. Small tomato plants grow to about one meter. They can be planted rather close together. Some short kinds do not require special care and are often harvested by machines.

Large tomato plants can grow over two meters tall. They also provide larger fruit. These plants need support. One method uses wires run along both sides of a row of plants. The wires help hold the suckers and fruit. The wiring is secured to strong posts on either side of the row. The wires are raised as the plants and fruit grow.

People who grow only a few plants can place wire cages around each one. The cage can be made of wire fence material. The cage helps the plant grow taller and to produce a bigger crop.

Tomatoes often need extra calcium or the fruit may be ruined. Adding lime to the soil can prevent this problem.

Dry conditions may also ruin fruit. Tomatoes need water regularly. The soil should never dry out completely. Dried grass or leaves placed around the plant can help hold water in the soil and control the growth of unwanted plants.

Tomatoes are native to South America. The tomato is a member of the potato family. The leaves of the plant are poisonous, like the leaves of its relatives. Before the middle of the eighteen hundreds, people grew tomatoes only as pretty plants. They called the bright red fruit a "love apple," but would not eat it.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: October 18, 2005