Cranberries: A Little Fruit With Big Appeal

Cranberries are a little red fruit native to North America. They are raised on more than sixteen thousand hectares across the northern United States and Canada. And they supply a growing market.

Over two hundred eighty million kilograms of cranberries are grown in the United States each year. Wisconsin is the biggest producer, followed by Massachusetts, Oregon, New Jersey and Washington State.

The hard berries are boiled with sugar to make cranberry sauce, a traditional part of Thanksgiving and Christmas meals. They are also eaten dried, made into spreads, baked into treats, mixed with other flavors and pressed into juice. In fact, that juice represents more than sixty percent of purchases of cranberry products at markets.

Cranberries are one of only a few fruit native to the United States and Canada. The Cranberry Institute says a Revolutionary War veteran named Henry Hall started to grow them for sale in Massachusetts in eighteen sixteen.

Cranberries are harvested in September and October. They can be picked by a machine that strikes the plant to loosen the berries. These are usually sold fresh.

But cranberries are more commonly picked from their low-growing vines in a way that saves a lot of labor. This method is possible because cranberries naturally grow in wetlands.

Many farmers grow the vines in areas that are lower than the surrounding land. At harvest time, the beds are flooded. A machine strikes the vines. The berries break free and float on the water. Then they are moved to one end of the flooded beds and gathered by machine. These berries are usually processed.

Cranberries have a long history. The Cranberry Institute notes that Native Americans used them in ceremonies and as food and medicine. Today marketers point to research findings that suggest that cranberries can help prevent some kinds of infections.

But cranberry growing has raised some environmental concerns. The Environmental Protection Agency says wetlands are being destroyed in some cases to expand production. Other concerns involve the use of farming chemicals that could enter water systems.

Yet even critics agree that cranberries are better than some other kinds of development. Farmers usually protect their cranberry beds with surrounding forestland. And that means a place for wildlife to live.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: December 6, 2005

Ethanol Fuel Opens New Markets for Corn

The American Midwest is known as the corn belt. Most of the nation’s maize is grown along that stretch of the country. The farmers who grow the corn have been very successful. So successful, they now face oversupply and low prices.

Most of the corn goes to feed animals. But some of it also goes into cars and trucks as ethanol fuel. Some farmers hope greater use of ethanol will drive new markets for corn.

Ethanol is made from plant matter that contains complex carbohydrates, or starch. Starch breaks down into simple sugars. And yeast organisms break down the sugars into alcohol.

Ethanol has a long history. It is ethyl alcohol, also called grain alcohol, the same kind found in alcoholic drinks.

Corn is not the only crop that can be used to make ethanol. Barley, wheat, even the leaves and stalks of corn, rice and sugar cane can be used.

In some parts of the country, fuel companies are required to add ethanol to gasoline as a way to reduce air pollution. The United States Department of Energy says many automobiles can run on ten percent ethanol without any need for changes.

The government has supported the development of vehicles with the ability to use a mixture called E-eighty-five. It is eighty-five percent ethanol and fifteen percent gasoline.

Some people may not even know that their cars and trucks have this ability. Many of these vehicles are common models made by Chrysler, Ford and General Motors.

A number of state laws support the use of ethanol. So does federal law. The Energy Policy Act of two thousand five requires the production of fifteen thousand million liters of renewable fuels this year. There are also tax reductions for ethanol makers, farmers and buyers of vehicles that can run on E-eighty-five.

Some experts, however, say they are concerned that using food crops to make fuel is bad policy. Some say it might use more energy than it produces. Others say using a lot of corn for fuel might shrink food supplies. But the process that separates starch to make ethanol, called wet milling, uses only part of the corn.

Plant-based fuels are not new. For many years Brazil has used fuel made with alcohol from sugar cane.

Related topic:
Scientists Study Switchgrass for Ethanol and Energy Production

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: January 30, 2006

Norway Plans to Store Seeds of All the World's Crops

The government of Norway is planning to build an unusual storage center on an island in the Arctic Ocean. The place would be large enough to hold about two million seeds. The goal is to represent all crops known to scientists. The British magazine New Scientist published details of the plan last month.

The structure will be designed to protect the world’s food supply against nuclear war, climate change and other possible threats. It will be built in a mountain on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen. The mountain is less than one thousand kilometers from the North Pole, the northernmost position on Earth.

An international group called the Global Crop Diversity Trust is working on the project. The director of the group, Cary Fowler, spoke to New Scientist. He said the project would let the world rebuild agriculture if, in his words, "the worst came to the worst."

Norway is expected to start work next year. The project is expected to cost three million dollars. Workers will drill deep in the side of a sandstone mountain. Temperatures in the area never rise above zero degrees Celsius. The seeds will be protected behind concrete walls a meter thick and high-security doors.

The magazine report says the collection will represent the products of ten thousand years of farming. Most of the seeds at first will come from collections at seed banks in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

To last a long time, seeds need to be kept in very low temperatures. Workers will not be present all the time. But they plan to replace the air inside the storage space each winter. Winter temperatures on the island are about eighteen degrees below zero Celsius. The cold weather would protect the seeds even if the air could not be replaced.

Mister Fowler says the proposed structure will be the "world's most secure gene bank." He says the plant seeds would only be used when all other seeds are gone for some reason.

Norway first proposed the idea in the nineteen eighties. But security concerns delayed the plan. At that time, the Soviet Union was permitted use of Spitsbergen.

New Scientist says the plan won United Nations approval in October at a meeting in Rome of the Food and Agriculture Organization.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: George Grow
First published: February 7, 2006

Producing Rubber from Sunflowers

Sunflower plants grow tall and produce a beautiful flower. The seeds are good to eat and produce a high quality oil for cooking. But scientists in the United States hope that sunflowers will also become known for their rubber.

The scientists are attempting to improve the quality and amount of latex from sunflower plants. Latex is made of rubber particles, water and other plant substances. It is a higher value product than solid rubber.

The scientists believe that sunflowers could reduce America’s dependence on imported natural rubber and rubber made from oil products. The United States imports more than one-million tons of natural rubber each year.

Katrina Cornish is an expert on how plants produce rubber. She works for the Agriculture Department in its Agricultural Research Service office in Albany, California.

Katrina Cornish notes that more than two-thousand-five-hundred kinds of plants produce natural latex. But she says few have the qualities that scientists want. Most plants are too small or grow too slowly. Others do not produce enough latex. Or the latex they produce is not good enough.

Sunflowers are large and grow quickly. Currently, latex produced from sunflowers is not good enough to be used to make products because of the quality and amount. However, the scientists hope to improve the situation in the future through genetic engineering.

Katrina Cornish and her team are experimenting with several different kinds of sunflowers. She is working with scientists from Colorado State University and Ohio State University. They are interested in the kinds of plants that produce the highest amounts of latex in stems and leaves. They are working with sunflower plants that grow in northern areas where most of the American sunflower crop is grown.

The scientists also work with other kinds of plants. One is the guayule [why-YOU-lee]. This is a desert plant native to the American Southwest. Katrina Cornish says Native Americans chewed the plant to remove latex for rubber balls and other goods. She says early automobile tires were made with guayule.

Last year a company working with her team opened a processing center. Guayule products will be made for people who get a severe health reaction to gloves and other goods made of other kinds of natural latex.

Related topic: Common or Annual Sunflower

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: George Grow
First published: February 10, 2004

Legumes Provide Nutrition for People - and Soil

Many different kinds of plants are part of the leguminosae group. They are called legumes. These plants can produce their own nitrogen. Beans are legumes. Peanuts are legumes. Alfalfa is a legume. There are also many different kinds of trees that are legumes.

As a food, beans are high in protein. Most beans also contain a lot of nutrients such as calcium, iron, phosphorus and niacin. Some beans contain amino acids and lysine.

The leaves of bean plants and other legumes also are high in nutrients. They are often fed to farm animals. Some farmers grow legumes especially for their animals. Cows, goats and other animals are permitted to eat the leaves on the plants in the fields.

Many farmers around the world know the value of growing legumes along with their main crops, or between harvests. The legumes replace nitrogen used by crops. They also provide a cover for the soil to help protect it from heavy rains and strong winds.

The roots of the legume plants hold the soil in place. This keeps the soil from being blown away by the wind or washed away by rain. The roots also loosen the soil. This lets the rain reach deep into the ground.

Legumes produce nitrogen through a process involving bacteria in the soil and nitrogen in the air. The bacteria form small growths on the plant roots. These growths are called nodules. They capture the atmospheric nitrogen that has entered the soil.

The nodules change the nitrogen into ammonia, a form of nitrogen that plants can use. The process is called nitrogen fixation. The bacteria needed for the process, rhizobia or frankia, are found in most soils. But if they are not present in the soil in a field, they can be "painted" on the legume seeds before the seeds are put in the ground. A local agriculture agent can show how to do this.

When planted next to fields, legume trees will add nitrogen to the soil. They provide shade and protect young crop plants from the heat of the sun. They provide firewood. And their wood can be used as building material. Some legume trees also provide medicines and chemicals for coloring cloth.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Bob Bowen
First published: February 21, 2006

Growing Vegetables in Shade

Farmers often feel they need a lot of sunshine to produce a good crop. But lots of vegetables grow well without much sun.

The Rodale Institute in Pennsylvania published a report about this subject some years ago in its magazine Organic Gardening. The report said many different kinds of foods from blueberries to beans can be grown in the shade.

Some vegetables do need a lot of sun. A vegetable crop expert at the University of Maine advised putting these vegetables where they can get from eight to ten hours of sunlight a day. Tomatoes, melons, squash and peppers are among those that need the most sun.

Plants that produce root crops, such as carrots and beets, need from six to eight hours of sunlight every day. But leafy vegetables, such as lettuce and spinach, need only six hours of sunlight a day.

The Rodale Institute says a garden should be planned carefully especially if you grow different kinds of foods. For example, rows of vegetables should be planted in an east-west direction. That way, as the sun passes overhead, all the plants will receive an equal amount of light. This is especially important when the plants grow to different heights.

Nut trees such as filbert, hazelnut and yellowhorn produce well with only sun in the morning.

Some fruits also do well without a lot of sunlight. In the United States, blueberries, raspberries, and several kinds of pears need only a little sun each day. In Asia, the hardy kiwi grows well in the shade.

Many herbs grow well without much sun. Mint plants, for example, grow well in the shade. So do sage, dill, oregano, borage, chamomile and several kinds of thyme.

The owner of a garden seed company warned against removing shade trees. He cut down all his shade trees to provide more sun for his crops. But then he had to protect his summer lettuce from the heat of the sun by hanging a piece of cloth to provide shade.

Instead of cutting trees, he suggested putting plants that need a lot of sunlight, such as tomatoes, in containers. That way they can be moved as the sun moves.

Internet users can learn more about the Rodale Institute at rodaleinstitute.org.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Bob Bowen
First published: March 7, 2006

Wild About Cherries

There is something hard to resist about cherries. The small red fruit is a popular seasonal food around the world. In northern areas, cherry trees are just beginning to produce flowers.

The cherry is a member of the same family of plants as the rose. It is closely related to the plum. Like cherry trees, plum trees also flower in early spring.

Cherries are thought to be native to western Asia. There are two major kinds of cherries harvested in the world: sweet and sour.

Sour cherries are not eaten fresh because they contain little sugar. Instead, they are processed to make prepared foods like jellies and pies and to make alcoholic drinks. The United States is a major producer of sour cherries. Among the states, Michigan is the top producer.

Russia, Poland and Turkey are other important cherry-producing nations.

Sweet cherries contain much more sugar than their sour relatives and are usually eaten fresh. Washington state is the biggest American producer, followed by California and Oregon.

The United States, Iran and Turkey are major producers of sweet cherries. In the United States, production fell by twenty percent last year after a record harvest in two thousand four.

Fresh cherries do not store well. They must reach market as soon as possible. So they cost more than many other kinds of fresh fruit.

Farmers produce different kinds of cherries through the process of grafting. They take cuttings from existing trees and join them to related trees, known as root stock. The cuttings, called scions [SY-uhnz], grow into the root stock, so the two kinds of trees grow as one.

Cherry trees are also valued for their springtime blossoms.

Cherry blossoms are popular in many parts of Asia and Europe. But Washington, D.C., has some of the most famous cherry trees in the world. Japan gave the United States three thousand cherry trees in nineteen twelve as a gift of friendship. There were twelve different kinds of cherry trees, but most were a kind called Yoshino.

Years later Japan gave another gift of three thousand eight hundred trees. In the early nineteen eighties, the United States provided Japan with cuttings from the Yoshino trees in Washington. These cuttings helped replace Japanese trees lost in a flood.

Related topic: Cherries Boast Anti-Inflammatory Benefits

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: March 27, 2006

Insects Devouring Your Garden? Call in the Ladybugs

There are plenty of insects that farmers hate. But there also are some they like. These protect crops against damage from other insects. A good example is the lady beetle, also known as the ladybug.

Lady beetles are a natural control for aphids. Aphids are tiny insects that develop colonies on plants and eat plant fluids. Aphids can also spread crop diseases. Adult lady beetles can eat fifty aphids a day. The young beetle larvae can eat hundreds of aphids.

Lady beetles are red, orange or black. They often have black spots, though some have light colored spots. Different kinds of lady beetles have different numbers of spots. There are lady beetles with four, five, seven and fourteen spots.

Many of the well-known kinds of lady beetles come from Asia or Europe. They now are common throughout the United States.

American scientists imported one kind of lady beetle, the multicolored Asian lady beetle, as early as nineteen sixteen. They released them as an attempt to control some kinds of inspects. Over the years, the beetle has become established, possibly helped by some that arrived with imported plants on ships.

Experts say over four hundred fifty kinds of lady beetles are found in North America. Some are native to the area. Others have been brought from other places. Almost all are helpful to farmers.

The Asian lady beetles now in the United States probably came from Japan. The Asian lady beetle eats aphids that damage crops like soybeans, fruits and berries.

In the southern United States, Asian lady beetles have reduced the need for farmers to use pest-killing poisons on pecan trees. This popular tree nut suffers from aphids and other pests that the beetles eat.

But some people say the Asian lady beetle has itself become a pest. Lady beetles have no food after crops have been harvested. It is time for them to prepare for winter. Normally this is in the ground, but it can also be in someone’s home. Some farmers also worry that the beetles may eat their late-autumn fruit crops.

Experts say Asian lady beetles may appear in large numbers in some years. But they say the insects are too helpful to consider pests.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mario Ritter
First published: April 10, 2006

Don't Know Much About Mulch?

Mulch is a protective cover of material that is spread on top of soil. It is usually made out of organic material, like crop waste. Farmers may keep the remains of maize or other crops on top of the soil. This creates mulch on the soil surface. The plant remains help protect the soil against wind and water damage. This is called conservation tillage.

Mulching is one of the best things people can do for their plants. Mulch not only protects the soil against wind and water damage. It also helps keep the soil from getting too dry, and reduces the need for watering plants. It also limits temperature changes in the soil. And it stops unwanted plants, or weeds, from growing.

Organic mulch improves the condition of soil. As the mulch breaks down, it provides material which keeps the soil from getting hard. This improves the growth of roots and increases the movement of water through the soil. It also improves the ability of the soil to hold water. Organic mulch contains nutrients for plants. It also provides a good environment for earthworms and other helpful organisms in the soil.

The United States Department of Agriculture says it is easy to find organic mulch materials. Cut-up leaves and small pieces of tree bark can be used. Grass cuttings are also a good mulch for plants. Mulch from newspapers works well in controlling weeds.

The best time to add mulch depends on your goal. Mulch provides a thick barrier between the soil and the air. This helps to reduce temperature changes in the soil. As a result, mulched soil will be cooler than other soil in the summer. Mulched areas usually warm up more slowly in the spring and cool down slowly in autumn. In winter, the mulched soil may not freeze as deeply as other soil.

Mulch used to help moderate the effects of winter weather can be added late in autumn. The best time is after the ground has frozen, but before the coldest weather arrives. Spreading mulch before the ground has frozen may attract small animals searching for a warm place to spend the winter. Delaying the spreading should prevent this problem. The animals will probably find another place to live.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: George Grow
First published: January 24, 2006

Fortified Sweet Potato Provides a Vitamin A Boost to Help Fight Malnutrition

The orange-fleshed sweet potato is rich in beta-carotene and helps to eliminate Vitamin A deficiencies in children and adults, a major health concern in Africa. While widely available in the West, this type of potato is not as common in Africa. During the past year, researchers from Kenya and other countries have introduced a new, bio-fortified type of orange-fleshed sweet potato as a way of reducing Vitamin-A deficiencies.

It is orange-fleshed sweet potato day at Lukore Primary School in the Shimba Hills of Kenya's coastal district of Kwale.

A visiting delegation of researchers, government officials and journalists is being treated to a variety of entertainment, all celebrating the virtues of the humble orange-fleshed sweet potato, which is among the highest natural sources of beta-carotene, a precursor to Vitamin A.

In the school's compound is a small plot with rows and rows of orange-fleshed sweet potato plants. Teacher Jackson Nzivo Mwaniki explains that he and the students plant orange sweet potatoes and distribute the vines to parents and other homesteads in the area.

Mwaniki says that his school was chosen last year mainly because of the school uniform that the students wear, and that local residents are happy with the orange sweet potato.

"The shorts and skirts are green, while the shirts are orange," he said. "That is why it [the school] was given first priority. When they chose us, they saw even the area itself, it is a potato-growing area. When it was introduced to this area, they welcomed it very highly. The children were very happy about it, and they even started planting [the sweet potato vines] in their homes."

Lukore Primary School is one of several demonstration sites that researchers have chosen in the district to educate residents about the nutritional value of the orange-fleshed sweet potato and encourage them to include the food in their diets.

According to the World Health Organization, children who suffer from vitamin-A deficiency suffer a dramatically increased risk of death and illness as a consequence. In communities where the deficiency exists, improving vitamin-A status can, on average, reduce young child mortality by 23 percent and measles mortality by 50 percent.

About 45 schools in the Kwale district grow and distribute the vines to households. Roughly 40 percent of households in the district grow the orange-fleshed sweet potato.

Sammy Agili is a sweet potato breeder with the Nairobi office of the International Potato Center. He says that last year his center and the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute introduced eight varieties of orange-fleshed sweet potatoes into Kwale District.

Up until then, people grew and ate predominantly white-fleshed sweet potatoes.

Agili explains that scientists are able to breed into the sweet potato varieties different levels of beta-carotene, sugar, and what is known as dry matter content (DM), which determines how moist or dry the sweet potato is.

"Consumers have different likes," he said. "For example, the children would like those varieties that are low DM and high sugar content. Now when you look at the mothers, their preference is quite different from men also. Men would like those varieties that have high DM, but slightly low sugar content. So we had a range of varieties which we introduced to them to select."

Agili says Kwale District has one of the highest malnutrition and Vitamin-A deficiency rates in Kenya, and that by introducing the different varieties of the orange-fleshed sweet potato, scientists are hoping to improve the area's nutritional situation.

Young children and pregnant and lactating women are most affected by Vitamin-A deficiency, which weakens the immune system and increases the chances of getting measles, malaria, diarrhea and eye conditions. About 70 percent of pre-school children in Kenya are believed to be Vitamin-A deficient, one of the highest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Scientists are able to breed desirable nutritious characteristics into the orange-fleshed sweet potato through a process called "bio-fortification".

Bonnie McClafferty is communications coordinator for Harvest Plus, an U.S.-based international research program that aims to decrease malnutrition by increasing the levels of vitamins and minerals in crops.

McClafferty explains that most poor people cannot afford to purchase a large variety of foods that may contain different vitamins and minerals, nor buy vitamin supplements, nor purchase food that is commercially fortified such as iodized salt.

"The concept of bio-fortification is that you use the powers of modern agricultural plant breeding to breed nutrition directly into the staple foods that poor people eat," she said. "The reason why this is important is that the predominant food of the undernourished are staple foods, up to 70 percent of the diet consists of either wheat or maize or cassava or beans, yet there is not a lot of micronutrients in those staple foods."

The International Potato Center's Agili says researchers will need to do follow-up studies in a year or two to see the impact of the orange-fleshed sweet potato on Kwale District's nutritional situation.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Cathy Majtenyi
First published: May 31, 2006

Switchgrass

Panicum virgatum


Alternate Name

Tall Panic Grass

Description

Panicum virgatum L., switchgrass, is native to all of the United States except California and the Pacific Northwest. It is a perennial sod-forming grass that grows 3 to 5 feet tall and can be distinguished from other warm-season grasses, even when plants are young, by the white patch of hair at the point where the leaf attaches to the stem. The stem is round and usually has a reddish tint. The seed head is an open, spreading panicle.

Uses

Livestock: Switchgrass is noted for its heavy growth during late spring and early summer. It provides good warm-season pasture and high quality hay for livestock.

Erosion Control: Switchgrass is perhaps our most valuable native grass on a wide range of sites. It is a valuable soil stabilization plant on strip-mine spoils, sand dunes, dikes, and other critical areas. It is also suitable for low windbreak plantings in truck crop fields.

Wildlife: Switchgrass provides excellent nesting and fall and winter cover for pheasants, quail, and rabbits. It holds up well in heavy snow (particularly ‘Shelter’ and ‘Kanlow’ cultivars) and is useful on shooting preserves. The seeds provide food for pheasants, quail, turkeys, doves, and songbirds.

Biofuel Source: Interest in switchgrass as a renewable biofuel resource has been increasing in recent years, primarily in the Southern United States. The Booneville, Arkansas, Plant Materials Center (PMC) and the Plant and Soil Science Department of Oklahoma State University (OSU) are cooperating to evaluate several upland types of switchgrass for use as a biomass energy resource. Selections of upland types of switchgrass have been evaluated by OSU for several years. The development of hybrid progeny with substantial heterosis for increased biomass yield will ultimately result in improved hybrid cultivars for the Central and Southern United States. The PMC is in the process of assessing several improved lines along with commercially available cultivars for dry-matter potential and environmental adaptation. Results of this study may contribute to producers cashing in on a growing demand for renewable fuels and a decrease on our dependency on fossil fuels.

Weediness

This plant may become weedy or invasive in some regions or habitats and may displace desirable vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative Extension Service office, or state natural resource or agriculture department regarding its status and use.

Adaptation and Distributions

On suitable soils, switchgrass is climatically adapted throughout the most of the United States. Moderately deep to deep, somewhat dry to poorly drained, sandy to clay loam soils are best. It does poorly on heavy soils. In the East, it performs well on shallow and droughty soil.

Switchgrass is distributed throughout the majority of the United States, excluding the far west states.

Establishment

Switchgrass should be seeded in a pure stand when used for pasture or hay because it can be managed better alone than in a mixture. Its slick, free-flowing seed can be planted with most seed drills or with a broadcast spreader. In the Southeast, a planting rate of approximately 10 pounds PLS per acre is recommended. Seedbeds should be firmed with a roller prior to the drilling or broadcasting of seed. If seeds are planted using the broadcast method, the area should be rolled afterward to help cover the seed. When drilled, seeds should be planted 1/4 inch deep. No-tillage seedings in closely grazed or burned sod also have been successful, where control of sod is accomplished with clipping, grazing, or proper herbicides.

Phosphorus and potassium should be applied according to soil tests before or at seeding. Nitrogen, however, should not be used at seeding time because it will stimulate weed growth.

Management

To control weeds during establishment, mow switchgrass to a height of 4 inches in May or 6 inches in June or July. Grazing is generally not recommended the first year, but a vigorous stand can be grazed late in the year if grazing periods are short with at least 30 days of rest provided between grazings. Switchgrass is the earliest maturing of the common native warm-season grasses and it is ready to graze in early summer.

Established stands of switchgrass may be fertilized in accordance with soil tests. Phosphorus and potassium may not be needed if the field is grazed since these elements will be recycled back to the soil by the grazing animal. Apply nitrogen after switchgrass has begun to produce using a single application in mid-to-late May or a split application in both May and early July. Avoid high rates of nitrogen because carry-over could spur cool-season grass growth and harm young plants the following spring.

Switchgrass will benefit from burning of plant residues just prior to initiation of spring growth. Burning fields once every 3 to 5 years decreases weed competition, eliminates excessive residue and stimulates switch grass growth. Switchgrass used for wildlife food and cover should be burned once every 3 to 4 years to reduce mulch accumulations that inhibit movement of hatchlings and attract nest predators.

Under continuous grazing management, begin grazing switchgrass after it has reached a height of 14 to 16 inches, and stop when plants are grazed to within 4 inches of the ground during late spring, 8 inches in early summer, and 12 inches in late summer. A rest before frost is needed to allow plants to store carbohydrates in the stem bases and crown. Plants may be grazed to a height of 6 to 8 inches after frost. The winter stubble is needed to provide insulation.

With management intensive systems, grazing can begin in the first paddocks when plants reach a height of 10 inches and should not be grazed below a stubble height of 6 to 8 inches. Grazed paddocks need to be rested 30-60 days before being grazed again.

Pests and Potential Problems

Grasshoppers and leafhoppers can be major pests in new seedings. Some stands are impacted by damping off and seedling blight. Leaf rust occasionally affects forage quality.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

‘Alamo’ (TX), ‘Blackwell’ (OK), ‘Cave-In-Rock’ (IL), ‘Dacotah’ (ND), ‘Forestburg’ (SD), ‘Kanlow’ (OK), ‘Nebraska 28’ (NE), ‘Shawnee,’ ‘Shelter’ (WV) (cultivars); Grenville (NM) (informal release); Miami (Dade Co, FL), Stuart (Stuart, FL), Wabasso (Wabasso, FL) (source identified releases). Seeds are available from most commercial sources and through large agricultural supply firms.

Control

Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist or county weed specialist to learn what works best in your area and how to use it safely. Always read label and safety instructions for each control method.

Related topic:
Scientists Study Switchgrass for Ethanol and Energy Production

Source:
USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program

Walnut Creek, California Community Gardens

Use the following resources to guide you to community gardens in Walnut Creek, California.

Howe Homestead Park Community Garden
2950 Walnut Boulevard
Walnut Creek, CA 94596

Contact Ranger Art Janke for tours and information.
Phone: (925) 930-7731

"Offers residents a chance to try their hand at old-time country gardening. Current gardeners grow everything from food crops to ornamental flowers."

Got additional Walnut Creek community gardening resources to suggest? Please submit them via the "Comments" link below. Thanks for visiting!

Learning to Grow Better Nursery Plants

A new monitoring system developed by USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists in Ohio is teaching researchers and nursery growers how to grow better trees and horticultural plants using more precise, efficient and safe applications of water, nutrients and pesticides.

The system is the brainchild of a team assembled over the past three years by Charles Krause, research leader and plant pathologist in the ARS Application Technology Research Unit at Wooster, Ohio. ARS is the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s principal scientific research agency.

Although the lessons learned in the research are still experimental, they’re already being adopted so rapidly by nursery operators that some in the industry expect the ARS monitoring system to be commercialized within the next few years. Nursery managers have reduced water use by 40 percent or more by applying these lessons.

The system monitors plant needs year-round, currently using 30 sensors for each of three sets of 50 trees. Tests are being done at Willoway Nurseries in Avon, Ohio, on Red Sunset maple, redbud, and Chanticleer pear trees. The sensors and a weather station linked to computer data loggers take readings—every minute, 24 hours a day, during the growing season—of measurements such as soil temperature and moisture.

The tests are being done with an increasingly popular production technique called “pot-in-pot,” in which potted plants are set inside holder pots permanently buried in the field. This especially lends itself to the new monitoring system, but is not the only technique that would work with it.

Excess water draining from the pots is measured and evaluated for quality and levels of wasted nutrients and pesticides. The system has shown that applying water at a slower rate several times a day reduces total water use and has revealed that the trees were being over-fertilized. It also promises to be the safest way to target pesticides, pumping them through hoses to individual spray nozzles attached to stakes in each plant pot.

For more details, see the February 2006 issue of Agricultural Research magazine.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Author: Don Comis
First published: February 22, 2006

San Jose, California Community Gardens

Use the following resources to guide you to community gardens in San Jose, California.

City of San Jose Community Gardens Home Page
Phone: (408) 793-4165
Email: manuel.perez@sanjoseca.gov

"San José has nineteen community gardens located throughout the city. These year-round gardens are managed by volunteer staff and offer an opportunity for San José residents to have their own garden plot."

San Jose Community Garden Locations and Contact Information

Alviso Community Garden
Tony P. Santos and Wilson Way - behind George Mayne
Phone: (408) 277-2575

Berryessa Community Garden
Commodore & Cape Colony Dr.
Phone: (408) 793-4165

Bestor Art Park
S. Six and Bestor
Phone: (408) 793-4165

Calabazas Community Garden
Blaney Ave and Dandridge Dr, San Jose
Phone: (408) 277-2575

Cornucopia Community Garden
647 S. King Rd
Phone: (408) 277-2575

Coyote Community Garden
Tully at Galveston
Phone: (408) 793-4165

Emma Prusch Farm Park
647 South King Rd
Phone: (408) 926-5555

El Jardin
South King and Story Rds
Phone: (408) 277-2575

Green Thumb
Rhoda & Roewill
Phone: (408) 793-4165

Hamline Community Garden
Hamline & Sherwood
Phone: (408) 793-4165

Jesse Frey Community Garden
Alma & Belmont
Phone: (408) 793-4165

La Colina Community Garden
Allegan Circle - next to La Colina Park,
Phone: (408) 277-2575

Laguna Seca Community Garden
Manresa Ct. and Bayliss Dr
Phone: (408) 277-2575

Latimer Community Garden
Latimer & Hamilton Ave.
Phone: (408) 793-4165

Mayfair Community Garden
Kammerer and Sunset Avenues
Phone: (408) 277-2575

Nuestra Tierra Community Garden
Tully Road and LaRagione Ave
Phone: (408) 277-2575

Rainbow Center Community Garden
Johnson Avenue and Rainbow Dr
Phone: (408) 277-2575

Wallenberg Community Garden
Curtner and Cottle Aves, San Jose
Phone: (408) 277-2575

Got additional San Jose community gardening resources to suggest? Please submit them via the "Comments" link below. Thanks for visiting!

Scientists Study Feasibility of Switchgrass for Ethanol and Energy Production

Two switchgrass plants per square foot the first year ensures a successful bioenergy crop harvest in subsequent years. That's the threshold level for success established by an economic study by the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and cooperators on 10 northern Plains farms in Nebraska, South Dakota and North Dakota.

Soil scientist Mark Liebig, at the ARS Northern Great Plains Research Laboratory in Mandan, N.D., worked on the study led by Ken Vogel, a geneticist at the ARS Grain, Forage and Bioenergy Research Unit at Lincoln, Neb.

As an expert in breeding and management of new, higher-yielding varieties of switchgrasses best suited to ethanol conversion, Vogel collaborates with many ARS labs in various regions of the country.

Liebig's contribution to the study was to quantify another potential switchgrass benefit: soil carbon storage. The study is a cooperative project with University of Nebraska economist Richard Perrin.

Switchgrass is a native prairie grass long used for conservation plantings and cattle feed in the United States. Interest in switchgrass ethanol has intensified recently as the federal government gains confidence in its potential as a bioenergy crop because of its wide adaptability and high yields on marginal lands. The northern Plains region was chosen first because the economics seemed most favorable there. Farmers can expect switchgrass yields to be high enough there to produce 100 to 400 gallons of ethanol per acre with current varieties.

Results from the main part of the study--the economics of growing switchgrass for bioenergy--are promising. Those results will be issued in May.

Switchgrass can be converted to ethanol just as cornstalks can. It also can be burned to produce electricity. Growing switchgrass for ethanol could bring new industries to rural areas.

As a perennial plant, switchgrass has the advantage of not needing annual planting and tillage. Skipping these can save soil and energy. It can also reduce sediment and other pollutant losses to waterways.

The study's seedling threshold results are reported in the January issue of Crop Science magazine.

Related topic:
Switchgrass Fact Sheet

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Author: Don Comis
First published: March 10, 2006

New "Scarlet Royal" Seedless Grape Variety Makes Its Debut

If you love sweet, firm grapes, you'll want to try Scarlet Royal red seedless from Agricultural Research Service (ARS) grape breeders in California.

Young vines that will yield this delicious, oval-shaped grape already flourish in sunny vineyards in California, the nation's largest producer of fresh-market, wine and raisin grapes. And though Scarlet Royal vines won't be ready to harvest for another few years, their luscious grapes are well worth the wait.

That's according to ARS horticulturist David W. Ramming and colleague Ronald E. Tarailo, who developed Scarlet Royal and tested it for 10 years before determining, in 2005, that it was ready for commercial vineyards. They received a U.S. patent for the grape in January 2006.

Ramming and Tarailo are with ARS' San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center at Parlier, Calif., about 200 miles north of Los Angeles.

Scarlet Royal grapes have attractive, dark-red skin and translucent, pale yellow-green flesh. By ripening in mid-August, the grapes help fill the gap between the earlier-ripening Flame Seedless, America's favorite red seedless grape, and the later-ripening Crimson Seedless.

Scarlet Royal, Flame Seedless and Crimson Seedless have all resulted from ARS' grape-breeding program in California, now in its 83rd year.

One of the newer grapes from the team, Scarlet Royal likely wouldn't exist were it not for an exacting laboratory procedure called embryo rescue. Ramming pioneered the application of this technology for breeding seedless grapes.

The approach requires excising the tiny, wisp-like embryo from inside a promising seedless grape, then nurturing it with special nutrients, in petri dishes, to form a little seedling.

In nature, when two seedless grape plants are chosen as parents—as was the case for Scarlet Royal—their offspring usually produce grapes with embryos so minuscule that they can't survive without the help of embryo rescue procedures.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Author: Marcia Wood
Photo: Stephen Ausmus
First published: April 7, 2006

New Muscadine Grape Offers Improved Flavor, Health Benefits

For those who love the unique flavor of muscadine grapes, there's good news. Stephen J. Stringer, a USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) geneticist at the Southern Horticultural Laboratory in Poplarville, Miss., is working toward developing new, healthful cultivars of this natural treat.

Growing wild from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico, and as far west as Missouri to Texas, muscadines come in varying shapes, sizes and colors. Most wild types have a thick, tough skin and a pulp that yields less juice than other grapes. Their aroma is often described as slightly musky.

Muscadines are grown commercially in the southeastern United States, where they are often called scuppernongs and are used primarily in juices, wines, jellies and preserves. They are valued for their high yields (8 to 12 tons of grapes per acre) and for resistance to pests such as phylloxera and nematodes, fungal diseases, and the bacterium that causes Pierce's disease.

Stringer is breeding cultivars with thinner skins, a crisp and melting flesh, high sugar content and increased concentrations of nutraceuticals, specific chemical compounds found in foods that may prevent disease.

Muscadine grapes (Vitis rotundifloia Michx) are extremely high in total phenolic content. Phenolic compounds have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticlotting properties that may translate to cardiovascular health benefits. Muscadines contain other beneficial compounds, such as gallic acid and ellagic acid, not commonly found in high concentrations in other grape species.

Stringer is working toward a joint release later this year, with the University of Florida, of a new fresh-market muscadine grape cultivar that offers excellent flavor, high yield potential and extraordinarily high concentrations of ellagic acid. Other advanced lines with high concentrations of total phenolics are showing promise for release in the near future.

Stringer is also looking at production practices, such as determining the efficiency of growth regulators to develop bigger and seedless varieties of muscadines.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Author: Jim Core
Photo: David Nance
First published: April 11, 2006

The Black Pearl Pepper: Beauty With a Bite

A new culinary ornamental pepper bred by USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists in Beltsville, Md., is earning accolades in the gardening community.

The eye-catching Black Pearl, released in 2005, was honored as a 2006 All-America Selections (AAS) winner. The award recognizes new flower and vegetable varieties that demonstrate “superior garden performance” in trials conducted throughout the country.

With moderately shiny black leaves and glossy fruits that ripen from black to red, Black Pearl offers a temptation few pepper enthusiasts can resist. ARS plant geneticists John Stommel, of the Plant Sciences Institute’s Vegetable Laboratory, and Robert Griesbach, of the U.S. National Arboretum’s Floral and Nursery Plants Research Unit, collaborated to breed this popular prize-winner.

How does a plant become an AAS winner?

The first step in breeding any new pepper cultivar is to select the desired characteristics -- in this case, dark leaves and densely clustered, round, black fruits.

It took years to refine Black Pearl’s striking appearance and spicy flavor. Once perfected, it underwent hundreds of trials to determine its response to different environments. Stommel and Griesbach tested Black Pearl with help from private-sector cooperator PanAmerican Seed Company, Elburn, Ill., which entered the plant in the AAS competition.

In trials, Black Pearl thrived in a variety of environments throughout the country. In addition, it resisted the ravages of drought, as well as of many insects and fungi. Robust, attractive and tasty, Black Pearl was a natural winner -- and the AAS judges weren’t the only ones to think so. Since it went on the market, more than 2 million seeds have been sold.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Author: Laura McGinnis
First published: April 26, 2006

Two New Lilacs Debut at the U.S. National Arboretum

Two of the newest additions to an ever-growing list of original ornamental plants produced by breeders with the U.S. National Arboretum, Washington, D.C., are lilac cultivars named “Old Glory” and “Declaration.” They were recently released to the public by the arboretum, administered by the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s chief scientific research agency.

The 446-acre arboretum maintains and displays many of the ornamentals and flowering trees, shrubs and herbaceous garden plants found in cities, towns and home landscapes throughout the United States. To these traditional favorites, researchers there and in the ARS Floral and Nursery Research Unit in Washington, have added many of the superior new floral and woody nursery plants now seen in public areas, as well as in private gardens.

Old Glory and Declaration are two new Syringa cultivars developed in the arboretum’s shrub-breeding program. Bred and initially selected by the late USNA horticulturalist Donald Egolf and released by geneticist Margaret Pooler, they follow the release of the “Betsy Ross” lilac in 2000. Old Glory and Declaration are each suited to a variety of landscape uses, including as background plantings in shrub borders, as deciduous hedges, or for mass-plantings in larger areas.

Old Glory was selected for its abundant fragrant, bluish-purple flowers, rounded growth habit and disease-tolerant foliage. In 25 years of testing in Washington, it grew nearly 11.5 feet high and a little over 13 feet wide. Compared to other Syringa x hyacinthiflora types of lilac, Old Glory has shown good field tolerance to Cercospora blight and Pseudomonas syringae in warmer climates where these diseases are a problem. It has also shown better-than-average tolerance to powdery mildew.

Declaration was selected for its fragrant, dark-reddish-purple flowers, nearly foot-long flower clusters and open, upright growth habit. In 25 years of testing at the arboretum, it grew 8.5 feet high and about 6.5 feet wide and also is well suited to a variety of landscape uses. However, it is recommended primarily for traditional, cooler lilac-growing regions.

Both Old Glory and Declaration bloom in mid- to late April at the arboretum, which is located in Plant Hardiness Zone 7a and has an average minimum temperature range of 5 to 0 degrees Fahrenheit. Planting stock should be available from a limited number of nurseries in 2006, and should be available from retailers in 2008.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Author: Alfredo Flores
First published: May 2, 2006

Cherries Boast Anti-Inflammatory Benefits

If you love the taste and texture of sweet, juicy Bing cherries, now you have an even better reason to seek out the glossy, fun-to-eat fruit at your supermarket.

A study by USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) chemist Darshan S. Kelley and colleagues confirms that Bing cherries may help fight the inflammation of arthritis, heart disease and cancer. Kelley is based at the agency's Western Human Nutrition Research Center in Davis, Calif.

For the research, 18 healthy men and women volunteers, aged 45 to 61, ate a total of about 45 fresh Bing cherries throughout the day for 28 consecutive days.

Blood samples indicated that levels of three telltale indicators of inflammation—nitric oxide, C reactive protein and a marker for T-cell activation, termed "RANTES"—dropped by 18 to 25 percent by the end of the cherry-eating stint.

Then, blood samples taken four weeks later indicated that volunteers' RANTES levels continued to decline. But their nitric oxide and C reactive protein levels began to increase.

Natural chemicals in cherries apparently work selectively, suppressing production of some of the body's inflammation-linked compounds, but not others, the researchers learned. For example, they found no significant decrease in levels of more than three dozen other markers of inflammation.

A smaller, shorter study of Bing cherries, conducted at the Davis nutrition center by Kelley and others and reported in 2003, also had shown a decrease in nitric oxide and C reactive protein levels. The followup investigation is apparently the longest yet conducted—with healthy volunteers who ate fresh cherries instead of extracts—to explore the anti-inflammatory effects of sweet cherries.

Kelley, retired ARS chemist Robert A. Jacob and ARS and University of California-Davis co-investigators published findings from the longer study in the April 2006 Journal of Nutrition. The grower-sponsored California Cherry Advisory Board of Lodi, Calif., helped fund the research.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Author: Marcia Wood
First published: May 11, 2006

Alameda, California Community Gardens

Use the following resources to guide you to community gardens in Alameda, California.

Alameda Point Collaborative (APC)
677 W. Ranger Ave.
Alameda, CA 94501
Phone: (510) 898-7800
Fax: (510) 898-7858

APC Services and Special Projects

"The Community Garden was built by and for APC residents, students at a local charter high school, and neighbors. The garden provides healthy organic produce and a sense of one community among existing APC residents and their neighbors."

Maps and Directions to the APC Community Garden

Got additional resources about Alameda community gardening to suggest? Please submit them via the "Comments" link below. Thanks for visiting!

San Francisco, California Community Gardens

Use the following resources to guide you to community gardens in San Francisco, California.

City of San Francisco Community Gardens Home Page
Contact: Mr. Marvin Yee
Community Gardens Program Manager
30 Van Ness Ave., 5th Floor
San Francisco, CA 94102
Tel.: 415-581-2541
Fax: 415-581-2540
Email: marvin.yee@sfgov.org

San Francisco Community Gardens Location and Contact List

Find gardens in the following neighborhoods:

Bayview - Hunter's Point
Bernal Heights
Diamond Heights
Excelsior
Eureka Valley
Glen Park
Hayes Valley
Marina
Mission
Nob Hill
Noe Valley
North Beach
Potrero Hill
Richmond
South of Market
Sunset
OMI
Telegraph Hill
Tenderloin
Upper Market
Visitation Valley
Western Addition

Got additonal San Francisco community gardening resources to suggest? Please submit them via the "Comments" link below. Thanks for visiting!

Berkeley, California Community Gardens

Use the following resources to guide you to community gardens in Berkeley, California.

Berkeley Community Gardening Collaborative
P.O. Box 2801
Berkeley, CA 94702
Phone: (510) 883-9096

Berkeley Community Garden Locations:

People's Park Gardens
Bowditch between Dwight and Haste

Ohlone Community Garden
Hearst at McGee

Karl Linn Community Garden
Peralta at Hopkins

Northside Community Gardens
Northside and Peralta at Hopkins

Peralta Community Art Garden
Peralta Street near Hopkins

U.C. College of Natural Resources Garden
Walnut & Virginia

West Berkeley Senior Center — Senior Gardening
1900 6th St.

BYA Community Garden
Allston Way between Bonar and West Streets

South Berkeley Community Garden
MLK Jr. Way at Russell Street, behind Tool Library

Got additional Berkeley community gardening resources to suggest? Please submit them via the "Comments" link below. Thanks for visiting!

Community Gardens in Oakland, California

Use the following resources to guide you to community gardens in Oakland, California.

City of Oakland Community Gardening Home Page

Oakland Community Garden Locations:

Arroyo Viejo Community Garden
79th Avenue and Arthur Street cul de sac
Phone: (510) 238-2197

Bella Vista
Phone: (510) 238-2197

Bushrod Community Garden
584 - 59th Street
Oakland, CA 94609
Phone: (510) 238-2197

Golden Gate Community Garden
1068 - 62nd Street
Oakland, CA 94608
Volunteer Coordinators:
Claire Wings - (510) 655-2664
Jean Robertson - (510) 655-1653

Lakeside Horticultural Center - Kitchen Garden
666 Bellevue Avenue - third gate on the left
Phone: (510) 238-2197

Marston Campbell Community Garden
Between 16th & 18th Street and Market & West Street
Volunteer Coordinators:
Margaret Majua - (510) 286-2290
Dorothy Noyon - (415) 826-7284

Temescal Community Garden
876 - 47th Street
Oakland, CA 94608
Phone: (510) 238-2197

Verdese Carter Community Garden
Corner of 96th Avenue and Bancroft Avenue
Volunteer Coodinator:
Georgia Oatis - (510) 532-2283

Got additional Oakland community gardening resources to suggest? Please submit them via the "Comments" link below. Thanks for visiting!

Scientists Discover City Tree Grows Twice as Large as Country Clone

This is a story about a city tree and a country tree. Each started as an identical sapling of a common cottonwood, a fast-growing poplar. Scientists wanted to analyze the impact of multiple pollutants in the two settings. And they found to their amazement that the city tree grew twice as large as its country clone.

Jillian Gregg set about to find the worst, most polluted environment in New York City. There she planted a tree. She planted another in the Hudson River Valley 80 kilometers from New York. She and a team of scientists at Cornell University and the Institute of Ecosystems Studies in New York followed the test sites over three years to understand why the city trees grew bigger.

In both locations the plants grew next to atmospheric pollutant monitoring stations. "What we did was to separate factors above ground Vs below ground. So, we went to a series of urban and rural sites and collected the soil and took them all to the same place," she says. "We could [then] ask the question within each soil type, do plants grow less in New York City?"

The answer was no. No matter what soil they were grown in, they got the same results. City trees were double the size of their country cousins. "That result was consistent for 11 different soils, 8 different sites, 2 different transects and 3 consecutive growing seasons," she says.

The scientists then set out to study above ground factors that would account for the difference. When a number of experiments ruled out warmer temperatures and higher concentration of nitrogen and carbon dioxide, scientists turned their attention to the stunted trees in the country.

Jillian Gregg says the answer is a difference in chemistry in the atmosphere that favors city trees. "We found that the cumulative ozone exposures were higher outside the city center," she says.

Rural ozone starts in the city. Automobile and industrial emissions interact with sunlight to form ozone, which the wind blows into the country.

The difference between the city and the country hinges on nitric oxide - one of the primary precursors of ozone, which was found in high concentrations in the city.

Jillian Gregg explains that it produces a chemical reaction that causes urban ozone levels to drop to nearly zero at night and in the winter. "So ozone is continually created and destroyed and created and destroyed within the city, but when that same air mass goes to the country, the high ozone concentrations remained in the atmosphere for a longer period. So you have a higher cumulative ozone exposures."

Which Jillian Gregg says translates into stunted trees. She says the work is a cautionary tale of the effects of urban pollution. "It is important for us to understand that we cannot escape the urban pollutants by going to the country, the effects can have an even greater impact there," she says. "So, if we want to get away from all of these pollutants, we need to curb them at their source."

Jillian Gregg and colleagues from Cornell University and the Institute of Ecosystem Studies write about the work in the journal Nature.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Rosanne Skirble
First published: August 3, 2003

Coffee Plants Yield More if a Forest is Nearby

A study in Costa Rica shows that conserving tropical forests might increase yields of coffee, one of the world's most valuable export commodities. U.S. scientists found that coffee fields adjacent to forests had higher production than those farther away.

The economic value of maintaining tropical forests near farms might be much greater than previously thought. A team of U.S. researchers measured the output of 12 coffee fields on a big Costa Rican plantation and found that plots within one kilometer of a forest produced 20 percent more coffee than plots farther away. The quality of the yield was better, too, with 27 percent fewer small, misshapen beans.

The study leader, biologist Taylor Ricketts of the World Wildlife Fund, says the key to the improved harvest was increased pollination by bees from the nearby forest.

"Coffee does self-pollinate, but if you allow bees to visit and bring in cross pollen, it will yield better," he says.

Several studies from around the world have already shown this, but this new study in the Proceedings of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences is unique because it measured the economic value of bee pollination to the plantation. Mr. Ricketts' team used data on the farm's yield and market prices to show that just two coffee plots nearest the forest helped boost the farm's income significantly. They yielded $60,000 more a year in coffee, because of the pollination of bees from the nearby woodlands.

"So that if they were cut down or destroyed for any other reason, that farm could expect to earn about $60,000 less than they had been so far," Mr. Ricketts noted.

In fact, the study found that the value of tropical forests can be greater than other land uses for which they are often destroyed. The World Wildlife Fund says that cattle pasture, for example, would yield only about $24,000 a year, less than half of what pollination services provide the coffee plantation.

Mr. Ricketts calls the findings good news for conservationists and growers, who sometimes are at odds over land use.

"What this means is that the goals of conservation and economic development are in some cases more aligned than we thought," he explained. "Conserving natural systems can benefit the species that live there and also the human communities that live nearby them."

Cross-pollination from birds, bees and other insects is of value to more than just coffee. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization says two-thirds of the world's crops require it. But Mr. Ricketts and his colleagues point out that recent declines in wild and managed bee populations throughout the world have aroused concern, prompting the United Nations to create the International Pollinators Initiative. This is a program to coordinate scientific investigation on ways to conserve animal pollinators.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: David McAlary
First published: August 5, 2004

Stinky "Titan arum" Plant May Have Trouble Attracting Humans, Not Bugs

The plant "titan arum" has the biggest flower in the world, and also the worst smelling. One specimen in Pasadena, California, is ready to bloom [in 2002]. That is a rare event because it may happen only a few times in a plant's 40-year lifetime. Visitors to the Huntington Library and Gardens are bracing for an aromatic experience.

Nursery manager Theresa Trunnelle said the plant looks like something from a science-fiction movie. "Bizarre," she laughed. "It's very bizarre. It looks as though it's something from another planet," he said.

It is a large and leafy vertical pod, green and burgundy, one meter high. It will soon send up a flower two or three meters high and one meter wide.

Ms. Trunnelle said the plant has a number of names, both scientific and affectionate. "Amorphophallus titanum is the technical name for it. And we have a fond name here of 'stinky' or 'the stinker,' and we're referring to its seedling as 'little stinker.' It's more commonly referred to, though, as the 'corpse flower' because of the way it smells when it's at peak fertilization," she said.

The Huntington's specimen is from the rainforest of Sumatra, Indonesia, where most of the plants are located.

Ms. Trunnelle said the smell may be repellent to people, but serves another purpose in the natural world. "It's an attractant. It's a horrible smell. It smells like decaying matter, meat. It's been compared to a combination of decaying fish or meat, nutmeg and maybe some cabbage. It smells to attract, in nature, pollinators," she said.

The smell draws flesh-eating beetles and flies that carry pollen from one plant to another so seeds will develop.

Huntington curator Gary Lyons said the plants, while not officially endangered, face challenges as civilization encroaches on their natural environment. "And they are harvested for commercial purposes, used as an aphrodisiac, also as a vegetable," Mr. Lyons said. In addition, the corpse flower is used in herbal medicines.

Much is still unknown about the plant and so scientists at nearby Jet Propulsion Laboratory are helping botanists by monitoring the plant to see how temperature, humidity and moisture in the soil affect its blooming cycle.

JPL's Kevin Delin said electronic sensors transmit information on this and other plants to scientists by way of the Internet. "We've been working with the Huntington now for about two years. There are a number of different microclimates at the Huntington, as you can see from the different gardens that are here, the Japanese Garden and the Desert Garden, and so it was an opportunity to test our instrument locally through JPL and actually do some useful work at the same time," Mr. Delin said.

But visitors are less concerned with this technical information than with the plant's impressive appearance and overwhelming odor, said Huntington curator Gary Lyons.

"They're amazed and if they're here soon enough to get a good whiff of the fragrance when it first opens, it can smell for maybe up to half a mile around. Fortunately, we don't have it in a small greenhouse when it flowers. If it were to flower in a very small, low-ceilinged greenhouse, you'd probably pass out from the scent," Mr. Lyons said.

The plant releases its odor suddenly and explosively. It blooms for about a day and then the event is over for another three or four years, or possibly longer. The most common reaction, said Mr. Lyons, is excitement combined with nausea.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mike O'Sullivan
First published: August 3, 2002

Sustainable Gardens Are Source of Food and Business in South Africa

One of the likely issues for discussion at the World Summit on Sustainable Development is the subject of food security: ensuring people at the greatest risk have a reliable source of food. One of the ways to reach that goal is to encourage even the poorest families to create self-sustainable vegetable gardens. One South African community has converted a barren plot of land into a thriving, sustainable food source and business.

Near the edge of a major roadway in Mkhuhlu, four women are busy at work in a series of small vegetable gardens. They talk about what to pick for their waiting customers.

They are part of a larger group of 25 women who, in the last seven years, have turned a desolate patch of earth into a prosperous vegetable garden and business.

Eunice Nyakana says the group started Bambanani Gardens as a way to feed their children.

She says she is happy today because she has food to give to her children. She says before they created the gardens she and the other mothers felt hopeless. They had no jobs and no money to buy food. Now, she says, even if they do not make money every day, at least they have food to take home.

Twice a week, Moses and Nancy Mathebula buy vegetables here to resell in their village, some 150 kilometers to the north.

As the women fill the bed of her small truck with vegetables, Mrs. Mathebula says she makes the long drive to Mkhuhlu because these women grow the best produce in the area.

"That is why I come here to buy here, because it is very better. And it is fresh. Fresh, fresh, fresh, fresh," said one customer.

Seven years ago, the women never envisioned getting paid to garden. When they asked EcoLink, a local environmental aid group, to teach them how to garden, they were simply trying to put food on the table.

For nearly two decades, EcoLink, with financial backing from Nestle South Africa, has worked with similar groups of women. They say this year, their community outreach projects, like Bambanani, will feed more than 100,000 impoverished South Africans.

EcoLink project manager Solly Mashego says now more than ever, it is important to teach people how to feed themselves. "Just because they cannot get employment somewhere, it does not mean they have to sit down and watch their children dying of starvation," he said.

Elsie Mpatlanyane, the team leader assigned to this project, says the example these women set is a powerful motivator in rural communities like Mkhuhlu. "I think it is important if everyone can copy from others and do the very same thing, maybe we will not suffer as we are suffering now."

The aid group EcoLink says as unemployment and HIV/AIDS continue to devastate South Africa's workforce, projects like Bambanani Gardens could mean the difference for many South African families between survival and starvation.

Source:
VOA News Service
First published: August 26, 2002

2000-Year-Old Date Palm Seed Sprouts into Sapling

Israeli scientists have successfully germinated a 2000-year-old date palm seed that has now grown into a sapling. Scientists say the ancient Biblical tree has properties that could have applications in medicine.

Israeli scientists are excited about this date palm's medicinal possibilities. Researchers at the Louis Borick Natural Medicine Center in Jerusalem grew it from a 2000-year-old seed. It and other seeds were found in the desert at Masada, the archeological site famous in Jewish history.

Dr. Sara Sallon, who led the project to resurrect the seeds, describes a colleague's reaction when the plant began to grow. "She said, 'There is a little green tip coming out of the crack', and we were kind of, 'What?' So, I just said, 'Just keep doing what you are doing'."

The palm is named "Methuselah," after the Biblical figure, who was said to have lived 969 years.

Dr. Sallon said these are the oldest seeds ever germinated. ”Historically, of course, it is fascinating to wake up something that has been asleep for so long, and the whole area that this opens up, that if you can wake up a seed after 2000 years, and get it to grow, there are a lot of possibilities in that area that we can also explore."

Dr. Sallon said the ancient date palm was used to fight infection, as a fertility treatment, and even as an aphrodisiac. She and her colleagues hope the palm still retains its medicinal properties.

The plant's DNA structure is being analyzed to find out. If the plant survives, and is a female, it will take nearly 30 years before it bears any dates. If it turns out to be a male, it will not bear fruit but will still be a curiosity to scientists.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Kimberly Russell
First published: June 28, 2005

Scientists develop method to grow fruits and vegetables in extreme climates

In a growth chamber in Antarctica, lettuce, tomatoes and cucumbers are being grown alongside flowers. Lane Patterson, of the University of Arizona, runs this chamber at the United States South Pole station and has already spent nine months there. He says all the plants, including the flowers, are edible -- in compliance with an international treaty. He also says South Pole Station personnel, who are isolated at the base for eight months a year, appreciate the chamber for more than just the food.

"Coming to a place that's green, pleasant, warm and has high humidity is also something that is very beneficial to the crew there at the South Pole," he says

Mr. Patterson says keeping the chamber that way depends on a lot of lights. The 1,000 watt bulbs are kept in special, water-cooled jackets that prevent them from burning the plants, and keep the lights cool enough to touch.

"This is a proven technology. It is relatively inexpensive and it is rugged,” says Mr. Patterson. “At the South Pole there is no re-supply during the winter, so if bulbs burn out faster than what you thought, then there is no re-supply, no vegetables."

Lane Patterson is due to return to Antarctica soon, to refine the system, which scientists hope could someday be used on the Moon or Mars.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Amy Katz
First published: January 10, 2006

Sustainable Wine Maker Harvests for Future Generations

The United States ranks as the 4th largest wine producer in the world. While California is the nation's leader, every other state supports a wine industry. In the Pacific Northwest state of Washington is a fertile pocket of vineyards where the combination of climate, soil and sustainable farming practices are helping to produce some of the country's best wines.

Every morning at dawn, Jean-Francois Pellet walks into his fields at Pepper Bridge Winery in the Walla Walla Valley of Washington State to check on his grapes. It is the end of the growing season this year, and the vines are heavy with bunches of small dark red grapes ready for harvest.

"The main thing is flavors. I usually I take two berries - one for my bag and one for my mouth," Mr. Pellet says before putting a grape in his mouth. "You can taste it. And, I look at the seed, too, to make sure it is very ripe." He notes that he is pleased with the flavor of this year's harvest.

Mr. Pellet is a third-generation winemaker from Switzerland whose talents as a vintner brought him to Walla Walla, whose high dry plateau provides an excellent climate and good soil for wine grapes. Mr. Pellet says he welcomed the opportunity to develop Pepper Bridge as a model for sustainable viticulture, which he says, is a question of balance.

The winemaker says sustainable viticulture is more than a set of farming practices. He says it is a common-sense approach to agriculture that follows a strict set of environmental standards that also makes economic sense. "Stewardship of the land is really our biggest mission," he says. "I have two young children and I think my goal in life is to return the land the way I got it or maybe in better shape. Our goal is also to make quality grapes, to make really fine wine."

In pursuit of that goal, says Mr. Pellet, many of the region's wine makers have adopted basic sustainable farming techniques. "We encourage all the growers not to spray if they see one bug or little fungi in the vineyard," he says. "But you evaluate. If you say, 'Okay, I have 5% or 10% or 15% disease maybe at that time you can spray. But it's really trying to understand your soil and your plants and do things very conscientiously and not spray or do things that you don't have to."

The Pepper Bridge Winery also employs drip irrigation to conserve water. Shrubs and trees planted throughout the vineyard encourage biodiversity and composting helps to enrich the soil. Jean Francois Pellet gets his compost at a facility located on a former wheat field not far from the vineyard.

The old farm is lined with dark, earthy-looking and clean-smelling windrows - each as long as a football field. The mounds consist of discarded logs, yard waste, cow manure and vineyard debris. They cook naturally into a nutrient-rich, disease-free fertilizer in about ten weeks. Travis Trumbull runs the business.

Jean-Francois Pellet comes for a look around. "The compost is basically what will keep food and microbiology in our soils," the winemaker says. "Some of those soils have been farmed for 80 years and they have been totally depleted. So, we have to re-enter this to replace the humus."

Travis Trumbull nods his head. "It is helping out Mother Nature," he says. "We've taken all we can from the earth and it's time to give back. And, I think that everybody that is involved in it and using it on their produce or on their wine grapes or on their apples -- or whatever the crop is -- will reap the benefits."

Jean-Francois says this compost is a food bank for his soil. It may take a decade or more to enrich the land, but he says it is worth the wait, because it will ensure that his vineyard will produce better grapes and better wine for generations to come.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Rosanne Skirble
First published: November 15, 2005

Bee Shortage Threatens California's Crops

A tiny pest is threatening California's community of honey bees and therefore its crops, which could affect the harvest of some of America's favorite fruits.

Bees are especially important to California's almond orchards because they go from flower to flower, pollinating the blossoms that will grow into almonds.

Jim Huddleson, an almond grower, says without bees, "Very little crop, just a little bit from the wind maybe a very small crop if any."

The problem--thousands of bee colonies are under attack from a parasitic mite.

"Actually, it is about the size of a head of a pin that actually attaches itself to the body of a bee and essentially sucks life out of it," said Orin Johnson, a California beekeeper.

Beekeepers like Orin Johnson rent hives and put them in the almond orchards. When the bees are finished pollinating the almond blossoms, the hives will be moved to cherry groves, apple orchards and melon patches. The bee shortage means farmers are paying much more per hive, if they can find any. Beekeepers have to bring in hives from Florida, on the other side of the country, and even as far away as Australia.

But Orin Johnson is doing everything he can to keep his bees healthy, including sticking his bare hand into the hive to check on the bees' health.

"That is why some people say beekeepers are nuts. Grown men playing with insects," says Mr. Johnson.

But for many farmers, the bee shortage is no laughing matter as they struggle to save their crops.

Related topic: Attracting Bees, Butterflies and Moths to Your Backyard

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Kimberly Russell
First published: February 25, 2005

Xeriscape gardener conserves water through landscaping

Colorado is a drought disaster area. Much of the western state's water comes from rain and melting mountain snow. But this year, both snowpack and rainfall are at historic lows. In the national forests, the number of wildfires is at a record high, and firefighters are gearing up for more blazes to come. Cities are also bracing for the drought. Because 70 percent of summer water use goes to lawns, flowers, bushes and trees, cutting back on landscape watering has become a major priority. This has put more emphasis on Xeriscapes - a trademarked name for the technique of water conservation through creative landscaping.

The thunderclouds settling over Boulder seem heavy with water. But experienced gardeners know these clouds usually offer more rumble than rain. "When I hear thunder, I don't assume it's going to rain. Even if it's raining hard, it may only rain for five minutes, and that's not enough to water the plants at all," says Mikl Brawner, a professional Xeriscape gardener.

The landscapes he designs feature plants that use water wisely; here in Colorado, that means drought-resistant varieties. On average, Boulder receives only 43 centimeters of rainfall a year. Sunny skies and strong, hot winds add to the speed at which plants dry out. While many gardeners get around these harsh conditions by watering their lawns and flowerbeds daily, Mr. Brawner takes the opposite approach: If a flower or bush needs a lot of water, he doesn't plant it. And if a new addition proves to be a heavy drinker, he doesn't try to save it.

"A lot of plants that I planted that were not appropriate died. You know, some people thought I was very mean to not water them when I could see they were dying," he says. "But I had decided that for the purposes of demonstration for the community, that I would be a test garden and demonstrate for people what you could get, only watering five times a year."

In a small yard next to his garden shop, Mr. Brawner has been experimenting with Xeriscape plants for nearly 20 years. His demonstration garden is open to visitors, who can wander the winding pathways to enjoy its natural woodland look, with shrubs, groundcovers and trees.

The drought-tolerant pink roses, sky-blue columbine flowers and evergreens are watered only five times between June and September. While that may seem a meager amount of moisture, it's enough for those plants, as well as nubby-looking sedum groundcovers and the saucer-shaped leaves of lady's mantle. There's even an apple tree with the first blush of fruit. There's plenty of color and variety, but since plants that receive less water blossom less frequently, once spring rain gives way to summer sun, his garden contains few flowers.

"One flower, there in the midst of other foliage around it, has a very pleasing presence. It makes its statement and then leaves it at that," he laughed. While a thirsty lawn with plenty of flowers is still the norm in Colorado, here at Mr. Brawner's plant store, a steady stream of gardeners is seeking out the beautiful and hardy Xeriscape varieties.

Drought-tolerance is on everyone's mind, because Colorado is bracing for one of the driest summers on record.

"We really are facing a drought for Boulder that, probably no one alive today has really had to face," Chris Rudkin said. He directs water utilities for the City of Boulder. To weather this year's historic drought, the city has begun water rationing. Residents may water their lawns and gardens only twice a week, for 15 minutes at most each time. For gardeners with traditional landscapes, this might not be enough, but Mr. Rudkin said there's no other choice.

"Our mantra for the coming season is 'every drop counts.' It really, really does," he says.

Mikl Brawner is sympathetic toward gardeners whose landscapes might not survive this year but he said he sees a long-term benefit. "We never like to see plants die, but on the other hand, we've had some wet years here that have given us the wrong impression about what Colorado conditions are like. Maybe this year, in spite of the fact that it's going to be hard on a lot of us gardeners, is going teach us more about what real Xeriscape is and getting down to the nitty-gritty of how to garden in really low-water conditions, and still have beautiful gardens," he says.

"Hey, Mikl!" one man exclaims. "Hey! We've been talking so much about drought, it's starting to rain . . ."

As Mikl Brawner greets another customer, the thunderclouds finally release a drop or two and then, the rain stops. But thanks to his many Xeriscape plants, Mr. Brawner's garden continues to grow, a thriving example of what could be Colorado's landscape of the future.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Shelley Schlender
First published: June 8, 2002

Western Redwoods Endangered by Killer Microbe

A microscopic pathogen, introduced to the United States about 1995, is wiping out a relative of the oak tree called the tanoak in the western states of California and Oregon. Only about ten percent of known tanoaks remain. At a slower rate, the same organism is also attacking 15 other deciduous, or leaf-bearing, trees and plants. And there is alarming evidence that the world's tallest tree, the soaring California redwood, may be next.

The awe-inspiring redwood, which can live 2,000 years and top 100 meters in height, is such a signature symbol of the northern California coast that the area is called "the Redwood Empire." Logging almost wiped out that empire until harvesting was regulated.

Today, more than 250,000 hectares of redwood forest remain in timber production. And safe havens for the trees were established in state and national parks. No wonder scientists and preservationists are worried about the recent discovery that the deadly Phytophthora ramorum organism has migrated from broadleaf trees to the redwoods, which are needle-bearing conifers.

Plant pathologists Matteo Garbelotto at the University of California in Berkeley, and David Rizzo at the university's branch in Davis, California, have found DNA evidence of the pathogen in dead redwood branches.

Dr. Garbelotto says Phytophthora, which is a microscopic cousin of the algae that form ocean kelp, is especially virulent because it is carried by the wind as well as moving through soil and water. So far in bushes like rhododendrons and huckleberries, it invades and kills only selected leaves and small branches. But in oaks and tanoaks, it produces enzymes that disintegrate the tree trunk's bark.

"And then once it's gone through the bark, it colonizes the cambium, which is the live part of the tree," Dr. Garbelotto said. "And by doing so, it basically kills it. It destroys the cambium, and once it's done girdling the whole circumference of the tree, the plant is dead."

Dr. Garbelotto says that while blotching has been found on redwood needles, and Phytophthora DNA has been confirmed in small, dead redwood branches, he and Dr. Rizzo have not yet confirmed that entire redwood trees have been killed by the organism.

"The branch that we're looking at is dead, but the branch could be dead for different reasons - many different reasons," he said. "What it may do - it may take out every single branch, one at a time. But that may take, you know, a long, long time. We could talk tens or even hundreds of years for a redwood."

Ken Bovero is an arborist in Mill Valley, California. He first identified Phytophthora in oaks and coined the term "sudden oak death." He says he's cut into three dead redwoods in the forest, seen other distressed redwoods, and found evidence of Phytophthora deep inside the giant trees.

"I saw dark, vertical staining between the sapwood and the heartwood. I also found a heavy odor of fermentation," he said. "It smells as if you had freshly uncorked a bottle of wine, and if you smell the cork, you smell that fermentation. That's what alarmed me. So I sent samples to a laboratory in Davis, California, and they confirmed that Phytophthora fungus was present in the samples that I sent them."

Scientists can do little to stop a blight in the areas where an outbreak has already occurred. In the late 1800s, a blight introduced to the New York Botanical Garden wiped out the entire East Coast population of chestnut trees. About the same time in Australia, a pathogen similar to Phytophthora killed a thousand native species.

Dr. Garbelotto says the spread of disease can be better controlled today than in the days of the chestnut blight. If it's confirmed that Phytophthora is threatening redwood trees, affected stands can be quarantined. Then other redwoods could be sprayed with copper sulfate, which would kill attacking spores and, hopefully, save the Redwood Empire.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Ted Landphair
First published: January 15, 2002

Scientists Search for Healthy Uses for Tobacco

Tobacco has been the major cash crop in the southern state of Maryland for 400 years. But with growing concerns about the health risks of smoking, the state is paying farmers to switch to other crops. However, none is as profitable per hectare as tobacco. So researchers at the University of Maryland are looking for alternative uses for the crop, which could end up helping society and tobacco farmers.

There are a lot of bad things associated with tobacco use: lung cancer, emphysema, heart disease. But at the University of Maryland in College Park, a team of researchers is focusing on the plant's good side -- its nutritional benefits. "Yes," insists agronomist Bob Kratochvil, "believe it or not, tobacco does have a lot of very good properties."

Professor Kratochvil runs the University's research farm, where they're growing tobacco, a plant he says has enormous potential for medicine, cosmetics, and energy. And, he points out, scientists hope they can even tease food out of the inedible plant. "It's got excellent quality proteins - human food proteins," he explains. "They're tasteless, odorless, the same quality as you have in soybeans or with milk. One of the potential benefits is that, supposedly, it will not cause allergies, as some folks have allergies to milk, (they're) lactose intolerant. Wheat is another crop; there is some protein allergy problem that some folks have. It's thought the tobacco protein [could] be something in special diets."

While tobacco leaves contain many proteins, finding the ones of value is the challenge for researchers like Martin Lo. Using a device called a screw press, he processes the research farm's harvest, extracting protein from the plants and analyzing it. "The small chopped-up tobacco leaves will be sent through this … screw press, and then we press the juice out of it, leaving the residual as the sludge."

From that juice, Professor Lo extracts protein crystals. He has identified two proteins so far. Both contain all 21 amino acids essential for human health. Because our bodies can't synthesize these amino acids, we have to get them from our food. Tobacco proteins could be an inexpensive, easy nutritional additive.

Professor Lo also sees the possibility of one day using tobacco proteins in medicines. He is studying several amino acids from the peptide segment of the protein. "[I want] to see if any of the protein segments actually match the therapeutic protein that might be of value to the pharmaceutical industry, to replace those proteins from animal origin. Those are considered more risky because there might be some disease that can be transmitted through animal protein." He explains that extracts from plants are much safer.

Another goal of the tobacco researchers is to eventually replace some petroleum-based products with plant-based ones. Remember the sludge left in the screw press? As bio-tech entrepreneur Neil Belson, another member of the University of Maryland tobacco team, points out, "tobacco produces an enormous amount of leaf matter that's
left over after you get the proteins out, and it's from this material left over that we envision looking for petroleum substitutes."

But first, the University team must generate more tobacco protein. Since the project began three years ago, Martin Lo has produced only a small amount of his two proteins. He says he hopes that by the end of next year, the researchers will have perfected the process of tobacco protein extraction. Then, they will seek investors to help build facilities where the proteins can be produced in large amounts.

The ultimate goal, according to project advisor Gary Hodge, is to help tobacco farmers in the state of Maryland. "If we can [identify] a way for them to continue growing tobacco for beneficial purposes," he explains, "then we can begin in Maryland to see the transition of a smoking tobacco-based ag[ricultural] economy to one that produces benefits for society, and maybe that will be picked up in the other tobacco growing states, and we can begin to see something very positive come out of this 400-year legacy of smoking tobacco production."

Since 2000, when the state began paying farmers to stop growing tobacco, many have turned to other agricultural commodities. Some have planted vineyards, others are growing corn or soybeans, but no single crop has proven as lucrative as tobacco. The work being done at the University of Maryland could make tobacco farming a profitable, and respectable, business again.

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Mary Saner
First published: November 30, 2005

The Quest for Perennial Grains

Thirty-three years ago, as a California genetics professor, Wes Jackson got to thinking about the annual planting, harvesting and re-planting cycle of the American farm -- AND about erosion, insects, drought, and chemical runoff's terrible toll. Remembering the hardy prairie of his native Kansas, Mr. Jackson wondered whether food grains could be grown perennially -- just like the prairie's sturdy grasses. And he set off to find out.

Now in his late 60s, one of American agriculture's notable contrarians is more rumpled and thicker in the waist than he was as a Kansas farmboy, coasting through what he calls one of the most misspent youths in the history of the planet.

Not until college would Wes Jackson take much besides football and girlfriends seriously. But his parents' aphorisms about thrift, discipline, restraint, and respect for the land slowly meshed with his own intellectual curiosity and with students' demands that science improve daily life.

"Students were screamin' for relevance at that time," Mr. Jackson says. "So, I clipped and tore and Xeroxed timely articles, and then began to see that the population problem is a serious problem. Resource depletion and environmental destruction were all a part of one fabric."

So in 1976 this brilliant and widely published geneticist returned to his roots, literally, and founded a combination farm and think tank called the Land Institute, outside the central Kansas city of Salina. Mr. Jackson still runs the operation from a tiny cabin next to what he calls the Sunshine farm, a 60-hectare labyrinth of test fields. In bluejeans and workshirt, he reclines in a squeaky chair with his feet propped up on his desk next to disheveled piles of papers -- a pot-bellied stove keeping the flatland chill at bay. In ways befitting an intellectual luminary -- for Mr. Jackson was awarded the prestigious, $250,000 MacArthur genius grant -- he takes the conversation in a hundred directions, not all of which the uninitiated listener can follow. For instance he's been known to say, "What we will be doing is developing elegant solutions predicated on the uniqueness of place."

The 24-person Land Institute staff now includes several other doctors of agronomy and ecology who are Jackson disciples. Their goal is to develop what they call sustainable agriculture based on deep-rooted perennial crops that mimic a prairie by fertilizing themselves, resisting insects and weeds, and popping out of the ground year after year. Mr. Jackson points to a number of plots where the scientists have succeeded in growing mixtures of wheat, sorghum, soybeans, and corn.

An ecological mosaic takes time, a LONG time. "But," reflects Mr. Jackson, "if you're workin' on something that you can finish in your lifetime, you're not thinkin' big enough!" And he laughs uproariously.

The institute's biggest hurdle, Mr. Jackson says, will be crossing swords with what he calls the corporate culture that makes billions of dollars selling farmers pesticides, fertilizers, and the machinery needed to perpetuate the annual crop cycle.

Wes Jackson predicts there will be powerful interests aligned against any switch from what he calls wasteful, harmful, profitable annual farming. "Oh," he says with a wink, "I think some people in ag schools think I'm a nut -- maybe the majority."

Farmers will become true believers in sustainable agriculture, Wes Jackson says, once crop yields approach those of single-crop, monoculture farming. "They won't be skeptical if they can make a profit. If they can cut their input costs," he says. "Farmers aren't stupid. They just want to make a profit. So I'm not worried. If the compelling alternative is there, they'll go for it."

Wes Jackson says he'd love to ease off a bit -- do some more writing. But, as he puts it, "What I'm doin's awfully interesting work." How about travel, a little fun? "I don't really go on vacations," he says. "I travel a lot. But my place -- this place right here -- to me is where the action is."

But don't call Wes Jackson a futurist. "Too heroic," he says. "We're just trying to make sense of the world."

Source:
VOA News Service
Author: Ted Landphair
First published: April 17, 2006

Tips for Choosing a Lawn Care Service

Many people choose to hire a professional company to help maintain their lawn. Lawn care companies offer a range of services, from fertilizing and pest control to aerating, mowing, and renovation. The following list of questions will help you determine whether a lawn care service is likely to provide safe, effective, worry-free maintenance of your lawn:

Q. Is the company licensed?

A. Nearly all states require lawn care companies to be licensed. The qualifications for obtaining a license vary from state to state, but having a license is one indication that the company is reputable and operating legally.

Q. Does the company have a good track record?

A. Ask neighbors and friends who have dealt with the company if they were satisfied with the service they received. Call the Better Business Bureau or the state or local consumer protection office listed in your phone book; have they received any complaints about the company? Determine from the state pesticide regulatory agency if the company has a history of violations.

Q. Is the company affiliated with a professional lawn care association?

A. Affiliation with a professional association helps members to stay informed of new developments in the lawn care field.

Q. Does the company offer a variety of pest management approaches? Does it apply pesticides on a set schedule or only when they are really needed? Does it use integrated pest management, or "IPM"--an approach that often reduces pesticide use by combining it with other, non-chemical methods of pest control?

A. More and more lawn companies are offering integrated pest management (IPM) in response to public concern about pesticides. Be aware that IPM is a general term and that companies may use it to describe a wide range of activities. Find out exactly what a company means if it says it uses IPM.

Q. Is the company willing to help you understand your lawn's problems and the solutions?

A. Lawn services generally apply fertilizers and pesticides. But you may be the one who mows and waters--and poor watering and mowing practices can lead to disappointing results. The company should tell you how it plans to take care of your lawn, and advise you about the work you need to do to keep your lawn in good shape.

Q. Will the company tell you what pesticides it applies to your lawn and why, and what health and environmental risks may be presented by their use?

A. You have a right to this information. If asked, the company should readily supply it. All pesticides sold legally in the United States are registered by EPA, but such registration is not a guarantee of safety. Ask to see a copy of pesticide labels to make sure they bear an EPA registration number, and to review the directions that should be followed. If the company can't answer your questions about the chemicals it uses, call NPTN (1-800-858-7378) for more information.

Source:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Prairie Coneflower

Ratibida columnifera

Alternate Names

Upright prairie coneflower, yellow coneflower, long headed coneflower, columnar prairie coneflower, Mexican hat

Description and Adaptation

Prairie coneflower is a native, late-season, herbaceous perennial in the Aster Family. It usually has a taproot and grows upright from a woody base to a height of 12 to 24 inches (30 to 60 cm). The numerous, pinnate leaves are deeply cut into linear or lance-shaped segments along alternately branched stems. Showy yellow ray flowers droop and surround the columnar-shaped, brown, central disk. Occasionally, the ray flowers are reddish-brown in color. The flowers tend to bloom from late June until August, with seed ripening completed in early August to September. The mature seedhead has a pleasant odor when crushed that is similar to anise or licorice. The fruit is a 1-seeded, gray-black achene.

Prairie coneflower is a native, drought-tolerant wildflower of the Great Plains that is commonly found from south central Canada to northern Mexico, and west from Manitoba and Minnesota to southeastern Idaho. It prefers to grow in the dry, open spaces of prairie grasslands and mountain foothills and is found along roadsides, in waste and disturbed areas, and along railroad rights-of-way. Prairie coneflower does well on a variety of soil types, including loams and rocky to gravelly-sandy textures. It tolerates a pH range from slightly acidic to moderately alkaline and weak saline soils, in areas receiving 10 to 30 inches (254 to 762 mm) of annual precipitation. Prairie coneflower attains optimum growth in full sun and low to moderate levels of competition within a native plant community. This plant is a common component of such ecological sites as shallow, silty, shallow to gravel, and silty steep. Associated species include western wheatgrass, bluebunch wheatgrass, prairie Junegrass, Sandberg bluegrass, common gaillardia, white and purple prairie clover, big sagebrush, and western yarrow.

Uses

Prairie coneflower is palatable and nutritious to all classes of domestic livestock when utilized in early stage of plant growth and development. It is considered a desirable spring browse plant for big game animals, and the seed of prairie coneflower is preferred by several species of upland birds and small mammals. Prairie coneflower is a medium to tall-statured forb that may fill a structural cover and nesting niche for multiple species of upland birds in a variety of plant community types. A more diverse native plant community will be attained when this species is included in native seed mixes for the rehabilitation of such disturbed sites as rangelands, minelands, roadsides, park and restoration areas, prairie restoration projects, and conservation plantings in accordance with government farm bill program requirements.

Landscape: Prairie coneflower is commonly recommended as an ornamental wildflower in pollinator friendly, low maintenance, or natural landscapes.

Ethnobotanic: Native peoples utilized a decoction of leaves and stems to treat pain, poison ivy rash, and rattlesnake bites. An infusion was made from plant tops to treat headache, stomachache, cough, fever, epileptic fits, and to induce vomiting. A medicinal or beverage-type tea was made from the ripened flower heads and leaves. An orange-yellow dye was produced from boiled flowers.

Establishment

Seed should be planted into a firm, weed-free seedbed, preferably with a drill that will ensure uniform seed placement depth of ¼ to ½ inch (6 to 12 mm). The processed seed of prairie coneflower has approximately 600,000 seeds/lb (1,320,000 seeds/kg). The full seeding rate is 2 lb/acre (2.2 kg/ha) pure-live-seed (PLS), but it would seldom be seeded in a pure stand. It is recommended that prairie coneflower be included as a component of a native seed mixture at a rate of ¼ to ½ lb/acre (0.3 to 0.6 kg/ha). When used in a mix adjust the seeding rate to the desired percentage of mix. Spring seeding is preferred over a dormant, fall planting date. Periodic mowing during the establishment year is one option for weed suppression.

Seed Production

Seed production fields should be established in rows at 25 PLS per linear foot of row (82 per linear meter of row). Between-row spacing is dependent on the type of planting and cultivation equipment, and ranges from 24 to 36 inches (60 to 90 cm). Adequate between-row space should be provided to perform mechanical cultivation. At 24-inch row spacing, the recommended seeding rate is 1 PLS lb/acre (1.1 kg/ha), and at 30- and 36-inch row spacing, the seeding rate is 0.7 and 0.6 PLS lb/acre (0.8 and 0.7 kg/ha), respectively. There are presently no herbicides specifically labeled to control weeds in seed production fields. Seed harvest of prairies coneflower is effective by several methods such as swathing and combining or direct-combining. Direct-combining should take place when the seed has just begun to shatter from the very top of the ripened conehead. Processing of the seed works well over a 2- to 3-screen fanning mill with final cleaning over an indent cylinder or gravity table. Seed production of 300 to 500 lb/acre (336 to 560 kg/ha) can be expected under irrigated conditions. Seed production stands may remain productive for only 3 years (2 seed crops). Seed viability is very high and longevity can be expected for 5 to 8 years when stored at moderate temperatures and low humidity.

Management

Growth of prairie coneflower begins in mid spring and flowers begin to appear in early summer. Excessive competition from other species may require removal to promote prairie coneflower establishment and longevity. Livestock grazing and wildlife browsing should be limited to avoid over-utilization during the active growing season.

Pests and Potential Problems

There are no major insect or disease pests of prairie coneflower. Stands can be reduced by powdery mildew and root and crown rot organisms.

Environmental Concerns

Prairie coneflower will establish relatively quickly via seed distribution. It is not considered weedy, but often finds its way into adjacent vegetative communities. Prairie coneflower coexists with other species and adds biodiversity to a variety of native plant communities.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Stillwater Germplasm was released in 2004 from the Bridger Plant Materials Center. It is a selected class release of prairie coneflower that is a composite of five accessions collected from native stands in Montana. The five accessions were selected because of their consistent taller stature, uniformity in seed maturity dates, and superior seed production.

G1 seed (analogous to foundation seed) is produced at the Bridger PMC and made available to commercial growers through the Montana Foundation Seed Program at Montana State University-Bozeman and the University of Wyoming Foundation Seed Service at Powell, Wyoming. One generation (G2 equivalent to certified) beyond G1 is recognized.

Source:
USDA NRCS Bridger Plant Materials Center

Violet Prairie Clover

Dalea purpurea

Alternate Names

purple prairie clover

Description

Violet prairie clover is a native, warm-season legume which grows to a height of 30 to 90 cm. Several stems may grow from a single base. The flowers are pinkish-purple on elongated spikes which are 2-4 cm long. The flower head at the end of a wiry stem is cylindrical, with a fringe of rosy petals on a partly bare cone. Violet prairie clover flowers the last of May through September. The leaves are divided into 3-5 narrow leaflets which may be sparingly hairy.

Uses

Violet prairie clover can be used in roadside plantings, as wildlife food and habitat, in wildflower gardens because of its attractive flowers, and as a small component in a seeding mixture for prairie restoration. Tea can be made from vigorous taproot to reduce fever in measles victims. This plant is highly palatable and nutritious. It is grazed often and tends to decrease under heavy use. Violet prairie clover fixes nitrogen in the soil.

Adaptation and Distribution

Violet prairie clover occurs in prairies, rocky open glades, along railroads, and rocky or open woods. It ranges from Indiana to Saskatchewan and Montana, south to Tennessee, Arkansas, Texas and New Mexico; also in Alabama and introduced east to New York. It is most abundant in the upland of the true prairie. It also occurs in sand prairies, hill prairies, and gravel-hill prairies.

Establishment

Prepare a clean weed free seedbed by disking and harrowing. Firm the seedbed by cultipacking. The seedbed should be firm enough to allow the seed to be planted ¼ inch deep. A seeder with a legume box works well in the seeding operation, although other types of seeders or drills may be used. Violet prairie clover is easily propagated from seed. Seed sown in spring will produce transplants in one season. For permanent plantings, sow unstratified inoculated (Inoculum –F) seed in fall, stratified inoculated seed in spring. Plants are largely cross-pollinated. Violet prairie clover grows well on well-drained or dry soils.

Seeding rates for violet prairie clover should be about two pounds of pure live seed (PLS) per acre for seed production in 36-inch rows. For solid stand production, drill three times the seeding rate of row production to maintain 40 PLS per square foot. For prairie restoration or diverse plantings for wildlife, use at least five species of native grasses and ten species of native forbs or legumes. Plant purple prairie clover at a rate of eight ounces/acre PLS when this species is 0-5% of the combined mixture. Scarified inoculated seed should be used in spring plantings and unscarified inoculated seed should be used to make fall plantings. There are approximately 300,000 clean seeds in one pound of violet prairie clover.

Apply no fertilizer the establishment year unless a soil test indicates a severe deficiency of potassium and/or phosphorus. Use no nitrogen during the establishment year as this can encourage weed competition.

Management

Reduce weed competition by mowing at a height that will not affect the purple prairie clover seedlings. For grassy weed control use Poast herbicide and follow label recommendations, as herbicide weed control will encourage a good stand. For preemergence or post emergence, Plateau herbicide is labeled; follow label recommendations.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

‘Kaneb’ (Riley County, Kansas) violet prairie clover was released by the Manhattan, Kansas Plant Materials Center because of its superior vigor and seed production. Bismarck Germplasm (Lyman County, South Dakota) is a selected release from the Bismarck, North Dakota Plant Materials Center; it was chosen for its superior vigor, forage abundance and above average seed yield. Central Iowa Germplasm is a source identified release from the Elsberry, Missouri Plant Materials Center; it is a composite of collections made throughout central Iowa.

Source:
USDA NRCS Elsberry Plant Materials Center

Choosing Plants for a Pond or Water Garden

When selecting plants for your pond, consider a mix of emergent, submergent, and floating species. Emergent plants, those that have their roots in the water but their shoots above water, can be added to the margins of pools. These include cattails (Typha spp.), arrowhead (Sagittaria spp.), and water lilies (Nymphaea spp.). Submergent species, or those that remain under water such as elodea, are often used as oxygenators. These are plants that remove carbon dioxide from the water and add oxygen. These plants are essential in most ponds to keep the water clear. Floating species or those that are not anchored at all in the pond include plants such as duckweed (Lemna minor), water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). While attractive, water hyacinth and water lettuce can be serious weed problems in the south; however, since they are not winter hardy, there is no problem with them spreading in northern climates. While not as effective as oxygenators, these plants help keep the water clear by limiting the amount of sunlight that algae receive. In tiny ponds created in barrels and similar containers, these plants may be adequate to maintain clear water.

Consider the following factors when selecting and establishing plants in your pond or water garden:

1. How deep is the water? This will be a factor in establishing plants and their survival over winter if you live in colder regions. Some species need a minimum depth of 2 to 3 feet to grow well.

2. Is your pond permanently installed in the ground or is it a small tub that will be moved inside in the winter? In this case, even tropical plants may be an option.

3. Will you drain your pond in the winter? If you intend to drain your pond, you should consider plants that can spend the winter in a basement in a dormant state.

4. How much sunlight does your pond receive?

5. How large is your pond? If your pond is small, consider dwarf species.

6. Purchase plants from a reliable vendor. Remember to include some oxygenator plants such as elodea.

7. Emergent and submergent plants should be planted into pots. A wide assortment of pots is available, from plastic baskets to pulp planters. Choose pots that are large enough for your plants.

8. If using baskets with numerous perforations, line the basket with burlap or 2 layers of newspaper to keep the soil from falling out of the holes.

9. Fill the container about half full with a mixture of good garden topsoil. Do not use potting mixes or peat moss. These are too light and will float out of the pot. Adding aquatic plant fertilizer to this bottom layer of soil is recommended for some species. Follow directions on the label for amount.

10. Place the plant on top of the soil and fill the container with topsoil within one inch of the top.

11. When planting water lily rhizomes, make a mound of soil in the middle of the pot. Place the rhizome at a 45 degree angle. The crown of the rhizome should be toward the center of the pot. Cover the roots with soil, but not the crown.

12. In all cases, add a layer of gravel to the top of the pot. This will help keep the soil from floating out and prevent fish from digging in the soil.

13. Slowly place the pots in the pool to keep soil from floating out. Place pots on bricks to get the desired height.

14. Floating species can be placed directly into the pond with no other care needed.

Plants should cover 50 to 70 percent of the water surface. Native plants usually do not need fertilizer. For some exotic water lilies, limited fertilizing once yearly may be required. Check with your nursery on care of plants and how deep to place potted plants. Be aware that overfertilizing may cause unwanted algae blooms which can rob the water of oxygen.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Attracting Bees, Butterflies and Moths to Your Backyard or Garden

In the United States, there are nearly 5,000 different species of native bees. Most of them are solitary, friendly bees that nest in holes in the ground or burrows in twigs and dead tree limbs. These bees do not have hives to protect them, so they are not aggressive and rarely sting. Bumblebees, carpenter bees, sweat bees, leafcutter bees, digger bees, and others pollinate many different kinds of plants. They play a critical role in healthy wild plant communities and gardens. About 30 percent of our diet is the direct result of a pollinating visit by a bee to a flowering fruit tree or vegetable plant. Providing bee habitat in your yard can increase the quality and quantity of your fruits and vegetables.

Bees are extremely sensitive to many commonly applied insecticides. If you must use chemical insecticides in your garden, apply them in the evening when bees are less likely to be active.

Bees are attracted to most flowering plants, and are especially fond of blue and yellow flowers. Try planting your garden to have different species blooming in the spring, summer, and fall.

Bee houses

A good use for untreated scrap lumber (at least 3 to 5 inches thick) is to drill holes (from 1/8-inch to 5/16-inch in diameter) about 90 percent of the way into the thick wooden block. Space the holes about 1/2-inch to 3/4-inch apart. The 5/16-inch holes work best as homes for orchard bees which are excellent pollinators of fruit trees. Hang your bee blocks under the eaves of your house or garden shed, protected from direct sun and rain.

Attracting butterflies and moths

Colorful butterflies and moths add beauty and interest to your backyard. There are hundreds of different species of butterflies and moths in North America. Butterflies and moths are insects. They hatch into larvae (commonly referred to as caterpillars), eventually become pupae, and develop into colorful adults. How long the process takes depends on the species and the climate.

Butterflies and moths are amazingly particular in their food choices. The larval stage of the butterfly may require food quite different from that of the adult. Some larvae consume tremendous amounts of plant material, seemingly devouring plants overnight. A common example in the garden is the tomato hornworm which rapidly strips tomato plants of their leaves. An equally voracious, but beautiful, larvae is the Eastern black swallowtail which is found only on plants in the carrot family, including celery, carrot, dill, and parsley. A close relative is the Eastern tiger swallowtail that eats the foliage of wild cherry, birch, poplar, ash, and tulip trees.

Adult butterflies require food in liquid form such as plant-produced nectar. They get some of it from flowers and from juices of extra-ripe fruit. The types of flowering plants you grow will determine the kinds of butterflies you attract to your backyard. In addition to the plants listed for hummingbirds, butterfly bush is especially attractive. Find out what species are common in your area and use plants they like. Nectar feeders can be placed in the yard to attract butterflies. Do not use insecticides near plants for butterflies. Learn to recognize larval and egg forms. That large green and black caterpillar eating your dill may one day turn into the gorgeous butterfly you were hoping to attract!

Butterflies, like all insects, are most active when temperatures are warmer. While moths are commonly found at night, most butterflies are active on sunny, warm days. Butterflies will benefit from a basking site where they can warm up on cool mornings. Add a light-colored rock or concrete garden sculpture as a basking site. Butterflies also need a source of water. A shallow dish of water or a depression in a rock that retains water is all they need.

The following types of plants are favorites of bees and butterflies, as well as being attractive additions to a yard and garden.

• Aster (Aster spp.)
  
• Azalea (Rhododendron spp.)
  
• Bee balm (Monarda spp.)
  
• Butterfly bush (Buddleia alternifolia)
  
• Butterfly weed and other milkweeds (Asclepias spp.)
  
• Cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis)
  
• Clover and other legumes
  
• Columbine (Aquilegia spp.)
  
• Coneflower (Echinacea spp.)
  
• Delphinium (Delphinium spp.)
  
• Fuchsia (Fuchsia spp.)
  
• Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.)
  
• Jewel weed (Impatiens capensis or I. pallida)
  
• Lobelia (Lobelia spp.)
  
• Lupine (Lupinus spp.)
  
• Penstemon (Penstemon spp.)
  
• Phlox (Phlox spp.)
  
• Salvia (Salvia spp.)
  
• Trumpet creeper or vine (Campis radicans)
  
• Weigela (Weigela spp.)
  
• Zinnia (Zinnia spp.)
  

Before selecting plants for your yard or garden, it's a good idea to check with a local nursery about which species are most suitable for your area.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Gardening for Wildlife - Tips on Creating a Backyard Habitat

Habitat is a combination of food, water, shelter, and space arranged to meet the needs of wildlife. Even a small yard can be landscaped to attract birds, butterflies, beneficial insects, and small animals. Trees, shrubs, and other plants provide shelter and food for wildlife.

The plants you use for food and cover will help determine the wildlife species attracted to your backyard. Nesting boxes, feeders, and watering sites can be added to improve the habitat.

Planning your wildlife habitat

Planning is necessary for attractive and productive wildlife habitat. You have both a horizontal area to work with--the size of your lot--as well as a vertical area that stretches from your soil to the treetops. The vertical area is composed of the canopy formed by the tallest tree branches; understory vegetation consisting of smaller trees, shrubs, and vines; the floor which is often dominated by low-growing groundcovers; and the basement where a variety of organisms exist in the soil. Different wildlife species live in each of these zones, so numerous habitats can be provided on a small piece of land.

Trees and shrubs are the backbone of any landscaping design and are important for wildlife shelter. Many tree and shrub species are excellent sources of food for wildlife. Proper selection of plant material can meet both the aesthetic needs of the homeowner and the food and shelter needs of wildlife. Remember that you are part of the habitat!

Steps to create habitat for wildlife:

1. Identify all existing plants, if any. Note:

• Condition of the plants and their locations.
  
• How much shade the trees and shrubs provide.
  
• Are trees evergreen or do they drop their leaves in the fall?
• Do they provide valuable food sources?
  

2. Make a sketch of your yard noting all existing plants, buildings, utilities, and pathways. You may even consider removing some plants. In some cases, trees have been planted too close to buildings or have grown much larger than the previous owner envisioned. Some species may be of little wildlife value and may not be particularly attractive. Once you have identified existing plants you want to save, start exploring options for plants that will work well with these species. The existing plants around your yard may be adequate to attract some wildlife, but a few changes can effectively enhance the existing habitat. Diversity in the landscape is necessary. Some plants provide food but very little cover; others provide cover but little food.

3. Add trees, shrubs, flowers, and groundcovers to your plan. Not all the planting needs to be done at once. If money or time is limited, consider it a work in progress.

4. Plant a variety of trees first. Select evergreen species for year-round cover and shelter. Select fruit or nut-bearing plants for a food source. Native species are well suited for providing wildlife habitat because they are adapted to the local soil, climate, and wildlife. Additional considerations for choosing and placement include:

• Eventual size. Whether they are evergreen or deciduous (trees that drop their leaves). Deciduous trees planted on the south side of a house will provide summer shade, but will not completely block winter sun.
  
  
• Neighboring properties.
  
  
• Flowering and fruiting habit. Select plants that flower and bear fruit at different times of the year. Some shrubs that produce berries can provide food throughout the year. Trees with nuts and fruit can also provide seasonal foods.
  
  
• Fill in with smaller shade-tolerant understory trees and shrubs. Adding these to an existing landscape will enhance the vertical structure that is common in natural landscapes. Many smaller trees and shrubs are colorful in the spring when they flower, and provide berries for fall and winter feed.
  
  
• Flowering annuals (plants that live one growing season) and perennials (plants that live for more than a year) add color to the yard and can be added at any stage to attract birds and butterflies. If your yard is large, consider using part of it for tall native grasses that provide beauty, as well as a natural source of food and shelter. A native wildflower garden provides the same function. Even on a small lot, native wildflowers, as well as some common garden species, can provide attractive habitat for a variety of birds and butterflies. Avoid straight lines and perfect symmetry. Natural habitat has curves and clumps of vegetation. Wildlife is not particularly attracted to a well-manicured lawn. Wildlife is more likely to come out into the open for viewing when the boundary of the yard is designed and maintained as a retreat for animals.
  

Further reading on this topic:
Attracting Birds to Your Backyard
Attracting Bees, Butterflies, and Moths

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Plants for Arid Climates or Dry Soil Conditions

Plants adapted to dry conditions have developed numerous mechanisms for reducing water loss, including narrow leaves, hairy leaves, and thick fleshy stems and leaves. Trees such as pines, hemlocks, and junipers are also well adapted to survive extended periods of dry conditions which they encounter each winter when the frozen soil prevents the uptake of water. Cacti, with leaves reduced to spines and having thick stems, are the best example of plants well adapted to extremely dry environments.

You are not limited to cacti, succulents, or narrow leafed evergreens when selecting plants adapted to low moisture requirements. Many plants growing in humid environments are well adapted to low levels of soil moisture. Numerous plants found growing in coastal or mountainous regions have developed mechanisms for dealing with extremely sandy, excessively well-drained soils, or rocky cold soils in which moisture is limited for months at a time.

The following plants are adapted to sunny, dry conditions:

• Yucca gloriosa
  
• Broom (Cytisus spp.)
  
• Yarrow (Achillea spp.)
  
• Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)
  
• California poppy (Eschscholzia californica)
  
• Blanket flower (Gailardia spp.)
  
• Sedum spp.
  
• Gold dust (Alyssum saxatile)
  
• Moss rose (Portulaca grandiflora)
  
• Juniper (Juniperus spp.)
  
• Artemisia spp.
  
• Lavender (Lavendula spp.)
  
• Sage (Salvia spp.)
  
• Iris spp.
  
• Thyme spp.
  
• Crocus spp.
  
• Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis)
  

Indigenous plants - plants that occur naturally in the local environment - will likely need less supplemental moisture most years than non-native species. These species have evolved under the local conditions and usually have well-developed mechanisms for surviving extremes in the weather.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Lawn Care Tips: Best Mowing Methods

Mowing your grass high - that is, keeping your lawn a bit long - will produce stronger, healthier grass with fewer pest problems.

Longer grass has more leaf surface to take in sunlight. This enables it to grow thicker and develop a deeper root system, which in turn helps the grass survive drought, tolerate insect damage, and fend off diseases. Longer grass also shades the soil surface keeping it cooler, helping it retain moisture, and making it difficult for weeds to germinate and grow.

A lawn's ideal length will vary with the type of grass, but many turf grass species are healthiest when kept between 2-1/2 and 3-1/2 inches. The ruler at the back of this brochure will help the best mowing height for your grass variety. You may have to readjust your mower - most are set too low.

It's also important to mow with sharp blades to prevent tearing and injuring the grass. And it's best to mow often, because grass adjusts better to frequent than infrequent mowing. The rule of thumb is to mow often enough that you never cut more than one-third of the height of the grass blades. Save some time and help your lawn and the environment by leaving short clippings on the grass - where they recycle
nitrogen - rather than sending them in bags to the landfill.

You don't have to grow a foot-high meadow to get good results. Just adding an inch will give most lawns a real boost.

Source:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Attracting Birds to Your Backyard

Bird species are extremely variable in their habits. Some like deeply wooded areas; others prefer open fields and meadows. Many species are year-round residents, while others such as the cedar waxwing appear only for a few days a year during migration. Other species such as sparrows, blue jays, cardinals, robins, juncos, and chickadees are highly adaptable and found in many environments.

Many people are not aware of the value of dead, dying, and hollow trees, as well as logs on the ground, for birds and other wildlife. Dead trees provide homes to more than 400 species of birds, mammals, and amphibians. Fish, plants, and fungi also benefit from dead and dying trees. Consider leaving standing dead and dying trees in your yard unless they pose a human safety or property hazard, and use old logs and stumps in gardens and landscaping.

Plant species for birds

Below are some plant species to consider for wildlife habitat. Check with a local nursery on plants suitable for your area. Some of these plants, while suited for wildlife, may have characteristics such as shallow roots or weak limbs that make them inappropriate for small urban properties--or they may not be winter hardy in all locations. Birds eat any flower seed, depending on the kind of bird and seed.

Trees for birds:

• American beech (Fagus grandifolia)
  
• American holly (Ilex opaca)
  
• Balsam fir (Abies balsamea)
  
• Black cherry (Prunus serotina)
  
• Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica)
  
• Crabapple (Malus spp.)
  
• Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida)
  
• Hawthorns (Crataegus spp.)
  
• Hickories (Carya spp.)
  
• Live oak (Quercus virginiana)
  
• Oaks (Quercus spp.)
  
• Red mulberry (Morus rubra)
  

Shrubs for birds:

• Common juniper (Juniperus communis)
  
• Highbush blueberry (Vaccinium spp.)
  
• Hollies--both evergreen and deciduous species (Ilex spp.)
  
• Pyracantha (Pyracantha spp.)
  
• Red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera)
  
• Serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea)
  
• Spicebush (Lindera benzoin)
  
• Sumacs (Rhus spp.)
  
• Viburnums (Viburnum spp.)
  
• Wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera)
  

Vines for birds:

• American bittersweet (Celastrus scandens)
  
• Trumpet honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens and related spp.)
  
• Strawberry (Fragaria spp.)
  
• Trumpet creeper or vine (Campis radicans)
  
• Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia)
  
• Wild grape (Vitis spp.)
  

Nectar plants for hummingbirds, butterflies, and bees:

• Aster (Aster spp.)
  
• Azalea (Rhododendron spp.)
  
• Bee balm (Monarda spp.)
  
• Butterfly bush (Buddleia alternifolia)
  
• Butterfly weed and other milkweeds (Asclepias spp.)
  
• Cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis)
  
• Clover and other legumes
  
• Columbine (Aquilegia spp.)
  
• Coneflower (Echinacea spp.)
  
• Delphinium (Delphinium spp.)
  
• Fuchsia (Fuchsia spp.)
  
• Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.)
  
• Jewel weed (Impatiens capensis or I. pallida)
  
• Lobelia (Lobelia spp.)
  
• Lupine (Lupinus spp.)
  
• Penstemon (Penstemon spp.)
  
• Phlox (Phlox spp.)
  
• Salvia (Salvia spp.)
  
• Trumpet creeper or vine (Campis radicans)
  
• Weigela (Weigela spp.)
  
• Zinnia (Zinnia spp.)
  

Additional food and shelter for birds

Few yards will be able to supply sufficient food or shelter for a variety of birds all year long. However, you can improve shelter and food supplies by building or purchasing feeders and houses, and by setting out certain foods.

All bird species have specific nesting requirements. Because of these requirements, your yard may not accommodate certain species. For instance, Eastern bluebirds prefer nesting sites that border open fields or lawns with a tree or fence post nearby to provide feeding perches. Chickadees prefer to nest in brushy wooded areas.

Before setting out nesting houses, find out which species are common in your area and can be encouraged to nest in your yard. Make or buy a bird house specifically designed for the bird you wish to attract. The size of the entrance hole is critical to prevent the eggs and young from being destroyed by larger birds--always check a list of appropriate hole sizes. Other considerations include box size, height above the ground, direction the entrance hole faces, and amount of sunlight. Boxes may need baffles or other protective devices to limit access by cats and other predators.

Many species of birds can be attracted by a variety of feed in different styles of feeders. There are many styles of bird feeders available, from window-mounted feeders to those that hang from branches and stands. Many birds will readily eat right off the ground. Bird feed comes in a variety of choices; however, sunflower seeds appeal to many birds, as well as small mammals. Woodpeckers, nuthatches, and chickadees are especially attracted to suet. Citrus fruit, chopped apples and bananas, and raisins will be eaten by numerous species, including robins, titmouse, nuthatches, woodpeckers, and mockingbirds.

Feeders may also attract wildlife species you may not want to feed such as starlings, crows, and squirrels. Feeder type and placement and the type of food can help deter unwanted species.

Unlike many other species of birds, hummingbirds rely on nectar as their source of food. These tiny, migratory birds are commonly seen in the summer in northern states gathering nectar from colorful flowers. Hummingbirds are typically attracted to red and yellow tubular flowers, although they frequently visit others. Hummingbird feeders can be purchased and filled with a sugar-water solution, consisting of 1 part sugar to 4 parts water. Every 3 to 4 days, wash the feeder with soap and water, rinse thoroughly, and add new sugar water.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Quick Tips for Watering Your Lawn and Garden

The following techniques will help you make the most efficient use of water when maintaining your lawn and garden. Good watering practices will help ensure healthy plants, and can also save you money on your water bill.

Most lawns are watered too often but with too little water. It's best to water only when the lawn really needs it, and then to water slowly and deeply. This trains the grass roots down. Frequent shallow watering trains the roots to stay near the surface, making the lawn less able to find moisture during dry periods.

Every lawn's watering needs are unique: they depend on local rainfall, the grass and soil type, and the general health of the lawn. But even in very dry areas, no established home lawn should require daily watering.

Try to water your lawn in a way that imitates a slow, soaking rain, by using trickle irrigation, soaker hoses, or other water-conserving methods. It's also best to water in the early morning, especially during hot summer months, to reduce evaporation.

The best rule is to water only when the lawn begins to wilt from dryness--when the color dulls and footprints stay compressed for more than a few seconds. Here are some rules of thumb to keep in mind when watering your lawn or garden:

• One deep watering is much better than watering several times lightly.
  
  
• Lawns need about 1 inch of water each week. If the weather is very hot, apply an inch of water about every 3 days.
  
  
• Watering to a depth of 4-6 inches encourages deeper, healthier root development. It allows longer periods between watering.
  
  
• To measure the water, put an empty tuna can (or cat food can) on the lawn while watering. Stop watering when the can is full or if you notice water running off the lawn.
  

Water at the Right Time of the Day

• Early morning or night is the best time for watering to reduce evaporation.
  
  
• To help control where your water goes, water when it's not windy.
  

Know Your Soil

Different soil types have different watering needs. You don't need to be a soil scientist to know how to water your soil properly. These tips can help.

• Loosen the soil around plants so it can quickly absorb water and nutrients.
  
  
• Use a 1- to 2-inch protective layer of mulch on the soil surface above the root area. Cultivating and mulching reduce evaporation and soil erosion.
  
  
• Clay soil: Add organic material such as compost or peat moss. Till or spade to help loosen the soil. Since clay soil absorbs water very slowly, water only as fast as the soil absorbs the water.
  
  
• Sandy soil: Add organic material to supplement sandy soil. Otherwise, the water can run through it so quickly that plants won't be able to absorb it.
  
  
• Loam soil: The best kind of soil. It's a combination of sand, silt, and clay. Loam absorbs water readily and stores it for plants to use.
  

Sources:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Tips for Selecting and Applying Fertilizer

Fertilizers provide nutrients necessary for plant health and growth, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. These are what N, P, and K stand for on bags of fertilizer. Nitrogen (N) is needed for healthy green growth and regulation of other nutrients. Phosphorus (P) helps proper roots and seeds develop and resist disease. Potassium (K) is also important in root development and disease resistance. When properly applied, the nutrients in fertilizers are absorbed by plants and little of these nutrients enters ground or surface water resources.

Use the Right Fertilizer

Test your soil to find out what nutrients ar needed. Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation Service or Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extention Service office to get information on obtaining a soil test. Local fertilizer dealers can also be helpful.

• A soil test will help you understand what your plants require.
  
• Follow label directions.
  
• Choose a fertilizer that has at least one-fourth of the nitrogen in a slow-release form, such as sulphur-coated urea.

Mow Your Lawn Frequently

Leave the grass clippings to decompose on the lawn. Annually, this will provide nutrients equivalent to one or two fertilizer applications. Set mower at 2 inches to reduce water use during hot weather.

Apply Fertilizer Properly

• It is best to apply fertilizer when the soil is moist and then water lightly. This will help the fertilizer move into the root zone where it is available to the plants, rather than stay on top of the soil where it can be blown or washed away.
  
  
• Watch the weather. Avoid applying it immediately before a heavy rain system is predicted to arrive. Too much rain (or sprinkler water) will take the nutrients away from the lawn's root zone.
  
  
• Use the minimal amount of fertilizer necessary and apply it in small, frequent applications. An application of 2 pounds of fertilizer five times per year is better than 5 pounds of fertilizer twice a year.
  
  
• Calibrate your fertilizer spreader to be sure you know exactly how much material is being discharged in a given space. Follow instructions accompanying your spreader.
  
  
• When spreading fertilizer, cover ends of the lawn first, ten go back and forth across the rest of the lawn, using half of the recommended amount. Shut the spreader off before reaching the ends to avoik over-application. Apply the other half of the fertilizer going back and forth perpendicular to the first pattern.
  
  
• Dispose of fertilizer bags or containers in a safe and state-approved manner.
  

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Try Natural Pest Control with These Insect-Repelling Plants

If you're plagued by garden pests but want to avoid using pesticides, one natural pest control option is to choose plant species that repel pesky bugs. The following plants have their own chemical defense systems, and when planted among flowers and vegetables, they help keep unwanted insects and other garden pests away.

Pest	Plant Repellent
Ant	mint, tansy, pennyroyal
Aphids	mint, garlic, chives, coriander, anise
Bean Leaf Beetle	potato, onion, turnip
Codling Moth	common oleander
Colorado Potato Bug	green beans, coriander, nasturtium
Cucumber Beetle	radish, tansy
Flea Beetle	garlic, onion, mint
Imported Cabbage Worm	mint, sage, rosemary, hyssop
Japanese Beetle	garlic, larkspur, tansy, rue, geranium
Leaf Hopper	geranium, petunia
Mexican Bean Beetle	potato, onion, garlic, radish, petunia, marigolds
Mice	onion
Root Knot Nematodes	French marigolds
Slugs	prostrate rosemary, wormwood
Spider Mites	onion, garlic, cloves, chives
Squash Bug	radish, marigolds, tansy, nasturtium
Stink Bug	radish
Thrips	marigolds
Tomato Hornworm	marigolds, sage, borage
Whitefly	marigolds, nasturtium

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Composting Tips

What is Compost?

Compost is a dark, crumbly mixture of decomposed organic matter, such as grass clippings, leaves, twigs, and branches.

How Does Composting Work?

Even the first-time composter can make good quality compost. Like good cooking, composting is part science, part art. Attention to the following parameters will help you get started.

Materials

Anything that was once alive will naturally decompose. However, some organic wastes should not be composted at home.

DO compost these items: grass clippings, leaves, plant stalks, hedge trimmings, old potting soil, twigs, annual weeds without seed heads, vegetable scraps, coffee filters, and tea bags.

Do NOT compost these items: diseased plants, weeds with seed heads, invasive weeds such a quack grass and moring glory, pet feces, dead animals, bread and grains, meat or fish parts, dairy products, grease, cooking oil, or oily foods.

Making It Work

To prepare compost, organic material, microorganisms, air, water, and a small amount of nitrogen are needed.

Organic material is leaves, grass clippings, etc. that you are trying to decompose. Microorganisms are small forms of plant and animal life, which break down the organic material. A small amount of garden soil or manure provides sufficient microorganisms.

The nitrogen, air, and water provide a favorable environment for the microorganisms to make the compost. A small amount of nitrogen fertilizer can add sufficient nitrogen to the compost. You can purchase nitrogen fertilizers at many hardware stores, feed stores, or nurseries.

Air is the only part which cannot be added in excess. Too much nitrogen can kill microbes; too much water causes insufficient air in the pile.

Biology

Bacteria are the first to break down plant tissue and are the most numerous and effective compost makers in your compost pile. Fungi and protozoans soon join the bacteria and, somewhat later in the cycle, centipedes, millipedes, beetles, and worms complete the composting process.

Surface Area

If the microorganisms have more surface area to feed on, the materials will break down faster. Chopping your garden debris with a machete, or using a chipper, shredder, or lawnmower to shred materials will help them decompose faster.

Volume

Compost piles trap heat generated by the activity of millions of microorganisms. A 3-foot by 3-foot by 3-foot compost pile is considered a minimum size for hot, fast composting. Piles wider or taller than 5 feet don't allow enough air to reach the microorganisms at the center.

Moisture and Aeration

The microorganisms in the compost pile function best when the materials are as damp as a wrung-out sponge and have many air passages. Extremes of sun or rain can adversely affect the balance of air and moisture in your pile. The air in the pile is usually used up faster than the moisture, so the materials must be turned or mixed up occasionallly to add air that will sustain high temperatures and control odor. Materials can be turned with a pitchfork, rake, or other garden tool.

Time and Temperature

The most efficient decomposing bacteria thrive in temperatures between 110F and 160F. Thus, the hotter the pile, the faster the composting. If you achieve a good balance of carbon and nitrogen, provide lots of surface area within a large volume of material, and maintain adequate moisture and aeration, the temperature will rise over several days.

Uses for Compost

Compost contains nutrients, but it is not a substitute for fertilizers. Compost holds nutrients in the soil until plants can use them, loosens and aerates clay soils, and retains water in sandy soils.

To use as a soil amendment, mix 2 to 5 inches of compost into vegetable and flower gardens each year before planting.

In a potting mixture, add one part compost to two parts commercial potting soil, or make your own mixture by using equal parts of compost and sand or perlite.

As a mulch, spread an inch or two of compost around annual flowers and vegetables, and up to 6 inches around trees and shrubs.

As a top dressing, mix finely sifted compost with sand and sprinkle evenly over lawns.

Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Dealing with Hazardous Defects in Trees

Trees add to our enjoyment of outdoor experiences whether in forests, parks, or urban landscapes. Too often, we are unaware of the risks associated with defective trees, which can cause personal injury and property damage. Interest in hazard tree management has increased in recent years due to safety and liability concerns resulting from preventable accidents. Recognizing hazardous trees and taking proper corrective actions can protect property and save lives.

A "hazard tree" is a tree with structural defects likely to cause failure of all or part of the tree, which could strike a "target." A target can be a vehicle, building, or a place where people gather such as a park bench, picnic table, street, or backyard. In general, it's best to consult a professional arborist when considering a major intervention with a hazardous tree.

Because of the natural variability of trees, the severity of their defects, and the different sites upon which they grow, evaluating trees for hazardous defects can be a complex process. This fact sheet presents guidelines, not absolute rules for recognizing and correcting hazardous defects. When in doubt, consult an arborist.

Inspecting Trees

Inspect trees under your responsibility every year. Tree inspections can be done at any time of year, leaf-on or leaf-off. To be thorough, inspect trees after leaf drop in fall, after leaf-out in spring, and routinely after severe storms.

Inspect trees carefully and systematically. Examine all parts of the tree, including the roots, root or trunk flare, main stem, branches, and branch unions. Be sure to examine all sides of the tree. Use a pair of binoculars to see branches high off the ground.

Consider the following factors when inspecting trees:

Tree Condition: Trees in poor condition may have many dead twigs, dead branches, or small, off-color leaves. Trees in good condition will have full crowns, vigorous branches, and healthy, full-sized leaves; however, green foliage in the crown does not ensure that a tree is safe. Tree trunks and branches can be quite defective and still support a lush green crown.

Tree Species: Certain tree species are prone to specific types of defects. For example, some species of maple and ash in the Northeast often form weak branch unions (page 5 ), and aspen is prone to breakage at a young age (50-70 years) due to a variety of factors, including decay and cankers.

Tree Age and Size: Trees are living organisms subject to constant stress. Pay particular attention to older trees, which may have accumulated multiple defects and extensive decay.

What to Look For

Hazardous defects are visible signs that the tree is failing. We recognize seven main types of tree defects: dead wood, cracks, weak branch unions, decay, cankers, root problems, and poor tree architecture. A tree with defects is not hazardous, however, unless some portion of it is within striking distance of a target.

Dead Wood

Dead wood is "not negotiable"-- dead trees and large dead branches must be removed immediately! Dead trees and branches are unpredictable and can break and fall at any time. Dead wood is often dry and brittle and cannot bend in the wind like a living tree or branch. Dead branches and tree tops that are already broken off ("hangers" or "widow makers") are especially dangerous!

Take immediate action if...

• A broken branch or top is lodged in a tree.
  
  
• A tree is dead.
  
  
• A branch is dead and of sufficient size to cause injury (this will vary with height and size of branch).
  

Cracks

A crack is a deep split through the bark, extending into the wood of the tree. Cracks are extremely dangerous because they indicate that the tree is already failing.

Take action if...

• A crack extends deeply into, or completely through the stem.
  
  
• Two or more cracks occur in the same general area of the stem.
  
  
• A crack is in contact with another defect.
  
  
• A branch of sufficient size to cause injury is cracked.
  

Weak Branch Unions

Weak branch unions are places where branches are not strongly attached to the tree. A weak union occurs when two or more similarly-sized, usually upright branches grow so closely together that bark grows between the branches, inside the union. This ingrown bark does not have the structural strength of wood, and the union is much weaker than one that does not have included bark. The included bark may also act as a wedge and force the branch union to split apart. Trees with a tendency to form upright branches, such as elm and maple, often produce weak branch unions.Weak branch unions also form after a tree or branch is tipped or topped, i.e., when the main stem or a large branch is cut at a right angle to the direction of growth leaving a large branch stub. The stub inevitably decays, providing very poor support for new branches ("epicormic" branches) that usually develop along the cut branch.

Take action if...

• A weak branch union occurs on the main stem.
  
  
• A weak branch union is cracked.
  
  
• A weak branch union is associated with a crack, cavity, or other
  defect.
  

Decay

Decaying trees can be prone to failure, but the presence of decay, by itself, does not indicate that the tree is hazardous. Advanced decay, i.e., wood that is soft, punky, or crumbly, or a cavity where the wood is missing can create a serious hazard. Evidence of fungal activity including mushrooms, conks, and brackets growing on root flares, stems, or branches are indicators of advanced decay.

A tree usually decays from the inside out, eventually forming a cavity, but sound wood is also added to the outside of the tree as it grows. Trees with sound outer wood shells may be relatively safe, but this depends upon the ratio of sound to decayed wood, and other defects that might be present. Evaluating the safety of a decaying tree is usually best left to trained arborists.

Take action if...

• Advanced decay is associated with cracks, weak branch unions, or other defects.
  
  
• A branch of sufficient size to cause injury is decayed.
  
  
• The thickness of sound wood is less than 1" for every 6" of diameter at any point on the stem.
  

Cankers

A canker is a localized area on the stem or branch of a tree, where the bark is sunken or missing. Cankers are caused by wounding or disease. The presence of a canker increases the chance of the stem breaking near the canker. A tree with a canker that encompasses more than half of the tree's circumference may be hazardous even if exposed wood appears sound.

Take action if...

• A canker or multiple cankers affect more than half of the tree's circumference.
  
  
• A canker is physically connected to a crack, weak branch union, a cavity, or other defect.
  

Root Problems

Trees with root problems may blow over in wind storms. They may even fall without warning in summer when burdened with the weight of the tree’s leaves. There are many kinds of root problems to consider, e.g., severing or paving-over roots; raising or lowering the soil grade near the tree; parking or driving vehicles over the roots; or extensive root decay.

Soil mounding, twig dieback, dead wood in the crown, and off-color or smaller than normal leaves are symptoms often associated with root problems. Because most defective roots are underground and out of sight, aboveground symptoms may serve as the best warning.

Take action if...

• A tree is leaning with recent root exposure, soil movement, or soil mounding near the base of the tree.
  
  
• More than half of the roots under the tree’s crown have been cut or crushed. These trees are dangerous because they do not have adequate structural support from the root system.
  

Source:
USDA Forest Service

Cool Your Home Naturally with Creative Landscaping

Landscaping is a natural and beautiful way to shade your home and block the sun. A well-placed tree, bush, or vine can deliver effective shade and add to the aesthetic value of your property. When designing your landscaping, use plants native to your area that survive with minimal care. Trees that lose their leaves in the fall (i.e., deciduous) help cut cooling energy costs the most. when selectively placed around a house, they provide excellent protection from the summer sun and permit winter sunlight to reach and warm your house. The height, growth rate, branch spread, and shape are all factors to consider in choosing a tree. Vines are a quick way to provide shading and cooling. Grown on trellises, vines can shade windows or the whole side of a house. Ask your local nursery which vine is best suited to your climate and needs.

Besides providing shade, trees and vines create a cool microclimate that dramatically reduces the temperature (by as much as 9 degrees Fahrenheit or 5 degrees Celsius) in the surrounding area. During photosynthesis, large amounts of water vapor escape through the leaves, cooling the passing air. and the generally dark and coarse leaves absorb solar radiation. You might also consider low ground cover such as grass, small plants, and bushes. A grass-covered lawn is usually 10 degrees Fahrenheit (6 degrees Celsius) cooler than bare ground in the summer. If you are in an arid or semiarid climate, consider native ground covers that require little water.

Planning Your Planting

Placement of vegetation is important when landscaping your home. The following are suggestions to help you gain the most from vegetation.

• Plant trees on the northeast-southeast and the northwest-southwest sides of your house. Unless you live in a climate where it is hot year-round, do not plant trees directly to the south. Even the bare branches of mature deciduous trees can significantly reduce the amount of sun reaching your house in the winter.
  
  
• Plant trees and shrubs so they can direct breezes. Do not place a dense line of evergreen trees where they will block the flow of cool air around or through them.
  
  
• Set trellises away from your house to allow air to circulate and keep the vines from attaching to your house's facade and damaging its exterior. Placing vegetation too close to your house can trap heat and make the air around your house even warmer.
  
  
• Do not plant trees or large bushes where their roots can damage septic tanks, sewer lines, underground wires, or your house's foundation.
  
  
• Make sure the plants you choose can withstand local weather extremes.
  

Source:
U.S. Department of Energy

Lawn Care Tips: Developing Healthy Soil

Good soil is the foundation of a healthy lawn. To grow well, your lawn needs soil with good texture, some key nutrients, and the right pH, or acidity/alkalinity balance.

Start by checking the texture of your soil to see whether it's heavy with clay, light and sandy, or somewhere in between. Lawns grow best in soil with intermediate or "loamy" soils that have a mix of clay, silt, and sand. Whatever soil type you have, you can probably improve it by periodically adding organic matter like compost, manure, or grass clippings. Organic matter helps to lighten a predominantly clay soil and it helps sandy soil retain water and nutrients.

Also check to see if your soil is packed down from lots of use or heavy clay content. This makes it harder for air and water to penetrate, and for grass roots to grow. To loosen compacted soil, some lawns may need to be aerated several times a year. This process involves pulling out plugs of soil to create air spaces, so water and nutrients can again penetrate to the grass roots.

Most lawns need to be fertilized every year, because they need more nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium than soils usually contain. These three elements are the primary ingredients found in most lawn fertilizers. It's important not to over-fertilize--you could do more harm to your lawn than good--and it's best to use a slow-release fertilizer that feeds the lawn slowly. It's also important to check the soil's pH. Grass is best able to absorb nutrients in a slightly acidic soil, with a pH of 6.5 to 7.0. Soil that is too acidic can be "sweetened" with lime; soil that's not acid enough can be made more sour by adding sulfur.

Have your soil tested periodically to see whether it needs more organic matter or the pH needs adjusting. Your county extension agent (listed in your phone book under county government) or local nursery should be able to tell you how to do this. These experts can also help you choose the right fertilizer, compost, and other "soil amendments," and they can advise you about aerating if your soil is compacted. If a professional service takes care of your lawn, make sure it takes these same steps to develop good soil. There's no getting around it: your lawn's health is only as good as the soil it grows in.

Source:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Preserving Our Native Plants

Native plants are an integral part of all healthy ecosystems. Each species contributes to a balanced system developed over millions of years, and interacts to keep the ecosystem functioning. Shrubs produce berries; birds feed on the berries; seeds from the berries are deposited by the birds, thus dispersing the shrubs. Plants drop their leaves, providing organic matter for the earthworms to eat; the earthworms churn up and aerate the soil, which improves plant growth. The intricacy of ecosystems - each with an enormous diversity of plants, animals, insects, bacteria, soil, air, and water - boggles the mind. There is no way to know beforehand how the loss of even one species will affect an ecosystem, and subsequently the many other species, including humans, that rely upon that ecosystem.

Scientists believe that the current global rate of plant extinction is unprecedented. But these native plants are not just disappearing from the tropical rain forests. They are also disappearing from our own backyards. Since the 1800s, the United States has lost close to 200 plant species. Today, 5,000 plant species are considered vulnerable to extinction, and more than 600 are on the federal threatened and endangered species list. These plants are disappearing because we are destroying their habitats. To protect plants, we must protect their habitats. Concern over the plight of native plants has brought together a variety of people and groups dedicated to preserving native North American plants and their habitats.

What Can You Do To Help?

Learn more about native plants, get involved, and spread the word!

• Encourage conservation of native plant habitats in your local community.
  
  
• Volunteer in parks, national forests, and other public lands to help protect native plants and their habitats.
  
  
• Get involved with a native plant group, botanical garden, or garden club.
  
  
• Never collect native plants from the wild--they might be rare or endangered species! Order from reputable nurseries that propagate from nursery-grown material.
  
  
• Talk to your local garden stores and ask them to stock native trees, shrubs, annuals, and perennials.
  
  
• Get involved with a local school and share your knowledge and appreciation with tomorrow's leaders. Encourage schools to include plant conservation in their curricula.

Related topic: Benefits of Landscaping with Native Plants


Source:
U.S. National Park Service

Discovering Medicinal Plants

Goldenseal, ginseng, echinacea, ginkgo - visit your local drug store or supermarket and you'll find large quantities of these products on the shelves, intermingled with old favorites like aspirin. Medicinal plants are used commercially, thanks to contributions of traditional cultures worldwide, modern medicine, and pharmacognosy (the study of the biochemistry and pharmacology of plants).

Without plants, most medicines you take would not exist. Over 40% of medicines now prescribed in the United States contain chemicals derived from plants. And most synthetic drugs were based on compounds from the plants originally providing the medicine. Historically, plant medicines were discovered by trial and error. Our ancestors noticed that aches and pains went away when they drank tea made from the bark of a willow tree. Later, scientists found that willow bark contains salicylic acid, the active ingredient in aspirin.

This process continues today. Throughout the world, botanists and chemists search the plant kingdom for new medicines. They sometimes find treasures in other people's trash. In 1975, researchers found a substance in the bark of the native Pacific yew tree, taxol, that reduces the production of cancerous tumors.

For years, the Pacific yew was burned as trash generated by logging operations in old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest. Now, the yew is part of the treasure trove of native plants saving thousands of lives each year. Taxol has been used effectively in treating a broad range of cancers, including breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and leukemia. Like many other medicinal plant discoveries, taxol has not only saved lives but also boosted our economy. Already a multi-million dollar business, by the year 2000 taxol should produce over $1,000,000,000 in revenue and many associated jobs.

A comprehensive search of known plants for medicinal chemicals is an enormous task. Of the estimated 250,000 plant species on earth, only 2% have been thoroughly screened for chemicals with potential medicinal use. Because native plant habitats are destroyed almost daily, many medicinally valuable plants will be gone before scientists can even investigate them. How many medicines have we already lost? How many more remain to be found?

Related topic: US Botanic Garden Exhibits Medicinal Plants

Source:
U.S. National Park Service

US Botanic Garden Exhibits Medicinal Plants

There has long been debate about the benefits of modern versus traditional medicine, but there is growing acceptance in Western countries of the virtues of traditional medicine, including medicinal plants that are widely used in many parts of the world. An exhibit at the U.S. Botanic Garden in Washington showcases medicinal plants from around the world.

Herbal remedies have been used to treat illness and disease for thousands of years. In many cases, modern science has verified the healing powers of these plants. According to the World Health Organization, 25 percent of modern medicines are made from plants initially used in traditional medicine.

Medicinal plants and herbal preparations are widely used in China, Africa and many other parts of the world. In Europe and the United States, however, they have more often been considered a supplement to modern medicine, but even in these regions there is growing interest in the healing properties of plants.

Nathan Bartholomew is in charge of the medicinal plants exhibit at the U.S. Botanic Garden. He says many people, particularly in the United States, are not aware of the curative properties some plants provide.

"Medicinal plant knowledge is one of the most ancient fields on the planet," he said. "Pretty much every plant species around, [even] common weeds we see in the sidewalk, are medicinal plants."

More than 100 species of herbs and plants are on display at the U.S. Botanic Garden exhibit. The plants are grouped by regions of the world and labeled according to their countries of origin.

Mr. Bartholomew says there are over 20,000 species of medicinal plants in the world and half of them are endangered. He says many other species of plants have yet to be researched for their medicinal properties.

The Botanic Garden official says that one plant or tree can have thousands of different medicinal uses. Native Americans, for example, used five main medicinal plants, each of them having thousands of different uses for different ailments.

He says the exhibit aims to educate the public about the latest science regarding medicinal plants, and about how vulnerable some plants are.

"We're striving to provide the most up-to-date plants and the most clinical research that is going on with medicinal plants, as well as a lot of the plants that are threatened and endangered, and are very important for conservation efforts," he added.

Among the plants in the collection is one known as the sausage tree, because of its sausage-shaped fruit. The fruit is widely used throughout Africa for treating medical problems, such as epilepsy and respiratory ailments. And a plant known as the Chinese star tree is now being used in some countries to treat the bird flu virus. The garden also features southernwood, a herb which provides the active ingredient in the malaria medicine artemisinin.

Xiaoiui Zhang is coordinator of traditional medicine at the World Health Organization (WHO).

"According to the international research, we found two plants now make a great contribution to the health. For example, artemisinin, that is an anti-malaria drug," she noted. "It is effective for all of the [parasites], it doesn't matter if it is for the Asian one or the African one. And another one is tameflu, WHO recommends to use that for the anti-bird flu."

But Ms. Zhang says the World Health Organization (WHO) does not promote medicinal plants as being better than Western medicine, but does urge people to be careful in the use of either one.

"Each system, either traditional or Western medicine, they have their own advantages and disadvantages," she added. "So at WHO, our policy is to encourage integrating traditional medicine into the national health system where it's appropriate."

The Botanic Garden exhibit has attracted a variety of people. Washington resident Michelle Brunson says she came partly because she wants to be a botanical illustrator, an artist who draws plants.

"I'm studying to become a botanical illustrator, so I have an interest just in the plants themselves visually, but I also have an interest because, in my studies, I have learned how many of the species are being killed in deforestation, and the ones that need to be conserved are the ones I'm really interested in," she said.

Ms. Brunson also says she works for the Marijuana Policy Project in Washington, which advocates making the marijuana plant medically available to seriously ill people who have the approval of their doctors. Advocates say the drug, which is illegal in the United States, helps reduce pain. The plant is not among the collection at the U.S. Botanic Garden.

Related topic: Discovering Medicinal Plants

Source:
VOA News Service
First published: January 11, 2006
Author: Anthony Stokes

The Wollemi Pine: Rare Conifer Dates Back to Jurassic Age

Inside a Plexiglas case is a small tree whose family roots date back to the age of the dinosaurs. The U.S. Botanic Garden is giving the three-year-old Wollemi Pine - which stands about half a meter high - a protected start in life.

"This exhibit is really all about the excitement about finding something brand new," says Christine Flanagan, spokeswoman for the U.S. Botanic Garden. "Suddenly we have a living fossil of which the last known living populations were 90 million years ago."

The Garden is cultivating the Wollemi under a trial program with the Royal Botanic Gardens and New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service in Australia.

"This tree provides us a window on all of the evolution of an entire plant family that we don't know that much about," Ms. Flanagan says. "In its genes is the story of how it survived from the Jurassic until today."

The Wollemi Pine was discovered ten years ago by a park ranger and avid bushwalker in a remote wilderness area near Sydney. John Benson, senior ecologist at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney, monitors the hidden grove of about 100 Wollemi. He says the conifer-like pine is a new genus in the 200 million-year-old Araucariaceae family.

"It grows up to about 40 meters high and up to about 1 meter in diameter," he says. "It has got a very unusual bubbly chocolate colored bark that I have never seen on another tree species anywhere. It has different type of foliage from the juvenile stage to the adult stage. The juvenile stage, the leaves look a little bit ferny. As the tree grows the leaves change and become too hardened, more spiky looking leaflets."

The location among steep canyons in Wollemi National Park remains a secret. The park wants to keep curious hikers - who might trample the trees or bring in disease on their boots - away.

John Benson says the Royal Botanic Gardens and the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service are behind an effort to conserve the tree through propagation. They are working with test gardens in Australia and elsewhere around the globe.

"They have found out things like they can withstand temperatures from minus 5 [degrees Celsius] to plus 45 [degrees Celsius] as long as it has got water," says John Benson. "It can withstand a little bit of frost. It certainly would be a suitable potted plant for the northern part of America and Europe and Japan, and it would grow in gardens in the mid-latitudes fairly easily. And, they have found that it grows in a wide variety of soils as well."

He says working with the tree is like going back to the days of the dinosaurs. "I feel that I am basically back in the Jurassic period, which ran from about 200 million years ago to 65 million years ago," he says. "I feel that I am not on this earth. It is a relic that has hung on there. It didn't want to go extinct. It somehow survived ice ages and drought and fire. And just going back and looking at what things must have been like 50 million years ago!"

On the other side of the world visitors to the U.S. Botanic Garden in Washington are getting some sense of that history as they stare at the Wollemi in the plexiglass case.

"I think that it is very cool that it is that ancient of a tree, the fact that it has been around that long," one recent visitor commented. Another added, "I was just thinking how many species are going extinct without us even knowing that they existed. And, this is obviously one that I did not know existed."

The Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney is expected to release the propagated plants for sale in October. The money raised will be dedicated to projects that safeguard the Wollemi Pine and other rare and endangered species.

Source:
VOA News Service
First published: March 27, 2005
Author: Rosanne Skirble

Biblical Garden Blooms in Pittsburgh

This is a story of a woman who was inspired by the Hebrew Bible to create a garden. The woman is the wife of a rabbi and her garden is located on the grounds of her synagogue in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, far from the Bible's ancient setting. The garden echoes the spirit of the Holy Land and celebrates its diverse and exotic flora.

At the corner of a busy city street, hidden by high walls, a piece of the Old Testament blooms in Pittsburgh. There is a cedar tree and date palms and a Mulberry bush, that in season drops bright purple berries on the cement walkway that meanders through the garden.

The grounds are lush with flowers, vines and herbs. There is an artificial waterfall and a patch of desert. Located adjacent to the temple, the garden transports visitors back in time to the landscape of ancient Israel.

There is the Jordan River. "Our little river here is four feet wide. And the Jordan in Israel meanders down to the Dead Sea. We have a sea here, not dead!"

The "Dead Sea" is a small pond with water lilies and lotus blossoms.

Irene Jacob, the wife of Rabbi Walter Jacob, turned this patch of earth into the Rodef Shalom Biblical Botanical Garden fifteen years ago and is responsible for what gets planted. "We have Mediterranean plants. And besides the 100 plants that are mentioned in the Bible, we also (have since we are only open in the summer from the first of June through mid-September) my husband and I decided that to add color we would have [to add] plants with biblical names. So, for example, we have Job's Tears, native of India, Moses in the Basket and Joseph's Coat," she says.

Ms. Jacob notes that everything grows in harmony, the pomegranates with the olives, the papyrus with the flax and henna. "Every page of the Bible has mention of plants. People don't realize that. Some plants are mentioned just once, like cotton in the story of the Maccabees and some plants are mentioned over three hundred times like [grapes] for making wine. Sometimes [wine] was easier to get than water," she says.

The biblical garden also grows something that tastes sweet. "We are not quite sure if they had refined sugar in ancient times, but they may have had canes where they [could] suck out the sugar. And, I get those plants from the United States Department of Agriculture. Every year I call them up and he knows that I am the 'crazy' lady in Pittsburgh who wants to grow sugar."

The barley and wheat are germinated from seeds. Other more hard-to-grow tropical plants and trees are displayed in containers under the soil and covered with mulch. When the garden closes they spend the winter in the greenhouse at the temple cemetery.

Each year the Biblical Botanical Garden promotes a special exhibit covering such fertile ground as "Dining with the Ancients," "Cooking with Beer," "The Healing Past," and "The Art of Dyeing", focusing on the plants used to color fabrics.

Irene Jacobs says she hopes that visitors leave knowing they have much in common, ecologically, with their Biblical ancestors. "And we like them to learn about this garden to come here and relax and enjoy. People have told me that in this very turbulent moment, especially in Israel, that it is lovely to come here and relax," she says.

Source:
VOA News Service
First published: June 20, 2003
Author: Rosanne Skirble

Environmentally-Friendly Landscaping Tips

The largest component of most home landscapes in this country is the lawn. In fact, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reports that there are more than 20 million acres (or 32,000 square miles) of cultivated lawn in the United States, covering more land than any other single crop. Statistics outlined in the book, Redesigning the American Lawn, show that our current lawn practices must better balance our need for lawns and our need for a healthy environment:

• A lawn mower pollutes as much in one hour as does driving an automobile for 350 miles.
  
  
• 30 to 60% of urban fresh water is used for watering lawns.
  
  
• $5,250,000,000 (that’s Billion!) is spent on fossil fuel-derived fertilizers for U.S. lawns.
  

There Must Be a Better Way

There are better ways to maintain our landscapes. Below is a list of ideas that can reduce the air, noise, and water pollution generated by our traditional maintenance activities, and reduce the amount of time you will need to spend in your yard to keep it healthy.

1. Limit disturbance of existing native vegetation.

If you have naturally occurring native vegetation on your property, protect it! It takes a lot of time, effort and money to recreate what nature has already provided. If you are planning to build a new home, make sure the amount of space cleared for home construction is just the minimum necessary. Also make sure that as many existing trees as possible are protected during construction.

2. Use Well-Adapted Native Species.

One benefit in using native plants is that, once they are established, they do not require a lot of maintenance. This is because they are adapted to our local climate and soil conditions. This means fewer or no fertilizer and pesticide applications, less watering, and less time dealing with plant problems!

3. Reduce storm water runoff.

Beautiful landscape features can be added to your yard and improve the quality of our surface waters at the same time by capturing storm water off your roof. If your downspouts are connected to an underground drain, you can disconnect them and direct the storm water away from your house into a rain garden or dry stream bed constructed out of cobble stones. This is good for our streams because it reduces the velocity at which the rainwater enters the stream bed, protecting its banks and wildlife habitat. You can also put rain barrels at the bottom of your downspouts and use this water to irrigate your flower gardens and lawn. (Note: Water from your roof may pick up pollutants and other impurities that you may not want on your vegetable garden!)

Another way to reduce runoff is to increase the ground’s infiltration capability. Water filtered through your soil will be cleaner than water that goes directly from your roof or driveway to a wetland or stream. Infiltration also recharges ground water, which in many regions is the source of drinking water. A lawn absorbs 10% of the amount of storm water that a woodland can absorb. Reducing the amount of lawn and replacing it with garden beds rich in native plant species will increase infiltration.

4. Plant Lawn Alternatives.

Much of the bad news about current landscape practices is due to lawns. Most turf grasses used today are exotic species that require a lot of pampering to look good. Long-term, low maintenance lawn alternatives include Buffalo Grass (Buchloe dactyloides), Pennsylvania Sedge (Carex pensylvanica) and Wild Strawberry (Fragraria virginiana).

Also, some native plant companies sell a “no mow” lawn mix that reduces the need for constant mowing and fertilizing. These are all low growing plants that can tolerate
some foot traffic.

Another popular alternative is replacing lawn with a meadow of prairie plants, where these plants are native to the region. This is a great option for those with large properties and lots to mow. The tall grasses and wildflowers will not give you the active recreation space your turf grass did, but it will provide hours of entertainment as you and your family watch the plants change, and the insects, butterflies and birds visit your yard.

5. Compost and Mulch.

These activities recycle the nutrients in your garden and make it self-sustaining. Composting has many benefits. It reduces the amount of organic material in our landfills (currently, 20% of our landfills are made up of grass clippings and leaves!) Composting and mulching with organic material returns important nutrients to the soil, helps conserve water, controls soil erosion and reduces the number of weeds in the lawn.

6. Better Lawn Practices.

For the lawn that remains in your yard, here are some tips that will keep it greener, healthier and weed free.

• Keep your lawn at least 3” tall. Taller blades of grass shade out weeds, help the grass plants resist drought, cool the ground and inhibit the evaporation of water from the soil. Keeping the lawn taller also makes it more disease and insect resistant. If you have a small lawn, consider a reel-type push mower.
  
  
• Mulch your lawn with clippings. Don’t remove the clippings from your lawn. They are made mostly of water and will decompose quickly. Mulching mowers speed this process by cutting the clippings into small pieces.
  
  
• Reduce the use of fertilizers. Before you fertilize, get the soil in your lawn tested. This is an easy process that can usually be done for a nominal charge through your local Cooperative Extension office. If you need to fertilize, most lawns only need it twice a year: once in late spring and once in the fall. Instead of using synthetic fertilizers, use organic, slow-release formulations. The slow-release fertilizers work over a long period of time and encourage more moderate growth, which requires less mowing.
  
  
• Reduce or eliminate the use of pesticides. If your lawn is healthy, you will have few problems with insects. If you discover an insect problem, first identify what it is, and the extent of the problem. If it is a minor one, concentrate on improving the health of your turf and try to tolerate a few imperfect areas. If the problem demands more attention, research Integrated Pest Management techniques through your local Cooperative Extension service. These techniques combine prevention and ecologically-sensitive solutions to plant problems. If your only recourse is a pesticide, make sure you choose one appropriate for the problem, and use it according to directions during the insect’s most vulnerable life stage.
  
  
• Reduce watering. It is not widely known that a lawn can go dormant during a dry spell, and then green right back up when it rains. But, if you can’t tolerate even a little brown in your lawn, follow these tips to reduce watering:
  
  1. Water in the early morning or evening to minimize water loss through evaporation.
  
  2. Water your lawn deeply, and less frequently.
  
  3. Be sure to keep the water on the lawn, and not on hard surfaces like the driveway. Chop up fallen leaves in your yard with the lawn mower and leave in place or add to the compost pile.
  
  

Source:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Plants to Avoid—Invasive Exotic Plant Species

Many of the plants we use in landscaping today did not originate from this country. They were introduced either deliberately for their beauty or food value, or unintentionally in seed, soil or ballast water. Most of these “exotic” plants stay where they are planted and do not invade natural areas. However, some exotics have become invasive. And because no natural controls exist here, they take over and threaten native plant communities, degrade fish and wildlife habitat, restrict recreational activity and reduce agricultural yields.

Scientists estimate that invasive weeds are spreading at a rate of about 1,900 hectares (4,600 acres) each day on public lands in the West. That would cover an area larger than the state of Delaware in just one year! Invasive weeds also have special characteristics that help them get a head start on native plants. Many have a long root system, which makes it easier for the plant to get water. (Especially in dry areas, much of the water supply is located deep underground.) Many weeds are tall and bushy and have hundreds of seeds. The seeds can travel great distances by wind or water, or they can “hitchhike” on wildlife, horses, livestock, and people–and on people’s cars and trucks, too. Some invasive weeds grow tall quickly and keep the sun from reaching smaller, slow-growing native plants. Still others grow in dense patches, crowding out native plants.

A good example of an exotic invasive plant is Purple Loosestrife. It is an herbaceous plant that lives in wetlands, shorelines and roadside ditches and has a pretty purple spike that blooms in mid-summer.

Dense stands of purple loosestrife have colonized many wetlands, replacing native food and cover plants that wildlife species depend on. According to the U.S. EPA, wetlands infested with purple loosestrife lose as much as 50% of their original plant populations. This limits the variety of food and cover available to birds and other wildlife, causing them to move or disappear from a region altogether.

So how do you determine if a plant is invasive? Follow these three easy steps:

Step 1. Use Native Species

If you want to make sure the plants you are using don’t end up taking over the adjacent woods or wetland, just use native plant species. Although some natives are aggressive and will colonize your garden quickly, at some point natural controls will keep the plant in check if it moves into the wild.

Step 2. Ask Yourself These Questions

The Maryland Native Plant Society evaluates exotic plants for a garden this way:

• Does the exotic plant naturalize or self-sow? If the plant spreads its seeds far by wind or water, don’t plant it. Purple loosestrife spreads through wetlands this way.


• Is the exotic plant a wildlife food plant? If yes, then wildlife will spread the seed around, and it is not a good choice. Autumn olive was originally planted for wildlife.
  
  
• Is the exotic plant a rapidly spreading groundcover? If so, don’t plant it next to naturalized areas. An example of this is a woodland floor covered with English Ivy or Myrtle.
  
  
• Is the exotic plant low maintenance, cold-hardy, tolerant of extreme water conditions, shade tolerant and pest-free? We generally think of these as positive traits in landscape plants! But it also means this exotic has no natural controls and should not be used. Crown vetch is a good example of this type of exotic.
  
  
• Does the exotic plant have the ability to kill or suppress growth of surrounding plants by shading them out, chemically poisoning them, or out-competing them for food and water? If so, you don’t want this plant in your garden! The shade and roots of Norway maples make it very difficult for any other plant (including grass) to grow beneath them. Plants with the above characteristics are not only problems for natural areas, but are problems for gardeners who have to work hard to control them in their yards.
  

The “Do No Harm” Philosophy

When deciding which plants to add to your garden, hold fast to the “Do No Harm” philosophy. This idea says that whatever type of plant you choose, native or non-native, make sure that plant will stay where it’s put, and will not overtake your adjoining woodland or wetland. Most native species have natural forces at work to check their spread. Non-natives, being out of their natural range, don’t. Therefore, our choice of species becomes the “natural force” that keeps the non-natives in check.

Related topic: Benefits of Landscaping with Native Plants

Source:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Benefits of Landscaping with Native Plants

If you haven’t worked with native plants before, you may be wondering how natives are different than daylilies or hostas. The following information answers these questions and explains why using at least some natives in your garden can be beneficial to the environment.

What are native plants?

Native plants are the trees, shrubs, flowers, grasses, ferns and other plants that have evolved in a particular area over thousands of years. In the United States, “native” plants existed here before European settlement. Over this long period of time, the plants have adapted to the particular growing conditions present here, including temperature, rainfall, winds, soils, slopes and wildlife.

Without our native plants, we would lose many of the places that renew us emotionally and spiritually. We would also lose much of the natural beauty that defines our culture. Can you imagine a world without our native plants? A world without bluebonnets stretching across Texas or fields of California poppies? Without native plants, no maples or aspens would spread their colors across the mountainsides. No rambling wild roses would adorn the fencelines of the countryside. And no irises would grace the banks of our waters.

The animals we love to watch and photograph - birds, deer, bears - rely on native plants. Some, like the grizzly bear, face extinction themselves because of the loss of their native habitats and foods. Native plants benefit hunters and anglers by providing food and shelter to game animals, from ducks to fish to elk. Gardeners rely on native plants such as azaleas and rhododendrons, roses and orchids, and black-eyed susans.

Using native plants in your landscape will bring you many benefits, including the following:

• Native plants are beautiful, providing an entirely new palate of plants to a traditional landscape.
  
  
• They are well-adapted to local conditions, therefore requiring little maintenance once established. They eliminate or significantly reduce the need for fertilizers, pesticides, water and lawn maintenance equipment. They also often attract beneficial insects, which prey upon pests, decreasing the need for pesticides.
  
  
• Most native species are perennial, or self-seeding biennial plants.
  
  
• Native plants attract our native songbirds and butterflies. Just as the plants have evolved and adapted to your region over time, the local wildlife has evolved alongside them, depending on these plants for food and shelter.
  
  
• Using native plants promotes biodiversity. Planting a small meadow that once was lawn replaces one plant species with many, increasing the opportunities for beneficial wildlife and insects to live.
  
  
• Natives reduce air pollution, improve water quality and reduce soil erosion. Using native vegetation, unlike cultivated landscapes, does not require the use of lawn maintenance equipment, a major contributor to air pollution. They improve water quality by filtering contaminated stormwater, and reduce soil erosion by
  stabilizing soils with their deep root systems.
  
  
• Native plants are less expensive to maintain. Studies by the U.S. EPA show that a prairie or wetland costs approximately $150 a year per acre to maintain, while the same amount of lawn costs $1,000 per year per acre to maintain.

Sources:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. National Park Service

Common Evening-Primrose

Oenothera biennis


Alternate Names

Weedy evening-primrose, German rampion, hog weed, King’s cure-all, fever-plant

Description

General: Evening Primrose Family (Onagraceae). Oenothera biennis is a biennial, herbaceous forb. The family is so-named because the flowers are partially to fully closed during the day and open in the evening. The bright yellow to gold corolla is 2-5 cm wide, with four petals. The fragrant flowers usually last only one to two days. The erect stem, which sometimes branches near the top, can be covered with hairs. The plant grows from 3-25 dm tall. Basal leaves, which form a rosette, are from 10-30 cm long. The stem has alternate, lanceolate-shaped leaves, 2.5-15 cm long, that are shallowly toothed and wavey at the edges. The leaves are usually hairy. The plant flowers from June through October.

Uses

Ethnobotanic: The Cherokee, Iroquois, Ojibwas, and Potawatomi were among several Native American tribes that used common evening-primrose for both food and for medicinal purposes. The roots were boiled and eaten like potatoes. The young leaves were cooked and served as greens. The shoots were eaten raw. A tea was made from the plant and used as a dietary aid or stimulant to treat laziness and “overfatness.” A hot poultice made from the pounded roots was applied externally to treat piles and boils. A poultice made from the entire plant was used to treat bruises. The roots were chewed and rubbed onto the muscles to improve strength. The plant was used to treat pain associated with menstruation as well as bowel pain. Handfuls of people still use the plant today, medicinally and for food.

Other: Common evening-primrose is commercially cultivated in over 15 countries for its oil which contains the essential fatty acids, linoleic acid and gamma linolenic acid. When the seedpods ripen, the tall stalks can be cut and used as interesting additions to dried arrangements.

Wildlife: Hummingbirds visit the flowers to obtain nectar and insects to eat. The seed capsules provide food for many other birds during the winter months. It is thought that the plants are pollinated by night-visiting hawk moths, which feed on their nectar. Japanese Beetles prefer the leaves of common evening-primrose to those of other garden plants.

Weediness

This plant may become weedy or invasive in some regions or habitats and may displace desirable vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative Extension Service office, or state natural resource or agricultural department regarding its status and use.

Adaptation

Common evening-primrose grows in dry open fields, along roadsides, railroad embankments, waste areas and in open woods.

Establishment

These plants do best in well-drained soils in full sun. They can be easily grown from seed. The seeds are ripe when the seed capsule begins to split open, usually in October. To insure even planting, mix the seeds with a small amount of sand prior to sowing. The seeds usually germinate within four weeks. Thereafter, the plants will generally self-sow. Please use care when cultivating this plant as it has become invasive in many parts of the world.

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center

Leopard Lily

Lilium pardalinum


Alternate Names

Tiger lily, panther lily

Description

General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). This perennial herbaceous plant grows along stream banks and moist meadows below 2,000 m elevation. It has five subspecies (pardalinum, pitkinense (rare), shastense, vollmeri, and wigginsii). The stems are from 3 to 7 feet tall and the leaves appear in 1 to 8 whorls up the stem or are scattered. The leaves are linear to lanceolate, 1-2 dm. long. The branched rhizome is thick and fleshy and densely covered with two-jointed, sometimes three-or four-jointed bulb scales which are clonal. The bell-shaped flowers are one to many on long spreading pedicels. The flowers are pale to bright orange-red with a lighter orange center and purple spots on the lower half. The flowers are arranged in a terminal raceme. The capsule is narrowly oblong, acutely angled and one and one-half inches long and contain flat seeds.

Uses

Ethnobotanic: There are five subspecies of leopard lily and probably all were utilized by various Native American cultural groups. The bulbs were pried loose from the earth with a digging stick, and baked or steamed by the Atsugewi, Yurok, Hupa, Karuk, Wailaki, Yana, and Sierra Miwok of California. A number of native people still dig the bulbs today. Tribes in northwestern California, for example, harvest the bulb in August or the fall, being careful to only take the large ones and replant the smaller bulb scales for later harvest. Traditionally, the Karuk baked the bulbs in an earth oven. The Sierra Miwok wore the flowers as wreaths. The bulbs are also eaten by small and large mammals.

Distribution

The plant is found along the coast of California in the coastal coniferous forests and in the mixed evergreen forests of the Coast Ranges and mixed conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada.

Establishment

Populations in the wild are declining because of habitat destruction and over-collection. Thus, do not collect these plants in the wild. If starting the plants from seed, plan on growing them for four years prior to out-planting. The seeds do not need stratification and can be planted in five or six-inch pots, one-quarter inch apart. Place the seeds on top of the soil, sprinkle soil on top and put one-quarter inch gravel on top of the soil. The seeds should be planted in well-drained soil and kept moist year round. Let the rain water the pots in winter. They should never be allowed to dry out. If there is not sufficient rain, supplement with hand watering. Put the pots outside in partial shade. The seeds will sprout by about March. After two years, separate the plants and space them four inches apart. Fertilize the plants in a weak solution once a month during the active growing period. Out-plant the plants after the third or fourth year in partial shade and keep them moist year round. They should be planted two to four inches deep.

If establishing the plants from bulbs, the secret to good survival is to get good live roots on the bulbs. Plant them at whatever time of year you can obtain the bulbs, directly in the ground, two to four inches apart. Water them as noted above.

Management

Weed around the plants regularly and protect them from herbivory by small and large mammals. Deer for example, eat the flowers and bulbs. If the bulbs get too thick, separate them every several years, otherwise they may get choked.

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center

Common Persimmon

Diospyros virginiana

Alternate Common Names

Eastern persimmon, possumwood, American ebony, white ebony, bara-bara, boa-wood, butterwood

Description

General: Ebony family (Ebenaceae). Native trees growing 5-12 (-21) meters tall; mature bark dark-gray, thick and blocky. Leaves are deciduous, simple, alternate, ovate to elliptic or oblong with smooth edges, 3.5-8 cm long, with an acuminate apex and rounded base, the lower surface usually lighter-colored, especially on young leaves. Flowers are either male (staminate) or female (pistillate), borne on separate trees (the species dioecious) on shoots of the current year after leafing; pistillate flowers solitary, sessile or short-stalked, bell-shaped, ca. 2 cm long, the corolla creamy to greenish-yellow, fragrant, usually with 4 thick, recurved lobes; staminate flowers in 2-3-flowered clusters, tubular, 8-13 mm long, greenish-yellow. Fruit is a berry 2-5 cm wide, greenish to yellowish with highly astringent pulp before ripening, turning yellowish-orange to reddish-orange and sweet in the fall, each fruit with 1-8 flat seeds. The common name, persimmon, is the American Indian word for the fruit.

Variation within the species: variants have been described but are not generally formally recognized.

Var. pubescens (Pursh) Dipp. - Fuzzy persimmon

Var. platycarpa Sarg. - Oklahoma persimmon

Var. mosieri (Small) Sarg. - Florida persimmon

Distribution: Primarily a species of the east-central and southeastern U.S., with the southeast corner of its range in Texas, reaching northeast to New York and southern Connecticut, westward through southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to Missouri and southeastern Kansas. It does not grow in the main range of the Appalachian Mountains nor in much of the oak-hickory forest of the Allegheny Plateau.

Uses

Common persimmon is sometimes used as an ornamental for its hardiness, adaptability to a wide range of soils and climates, and immunity from disease and insects. Moist, well-drained soils provide best conditions but the plant will tolerate hot, dry, poor soils, including various city conditions. The species is rarely sold commercially, however. The leaves are glossy and leathery and may be yellow or reddish-purple in the fall. Several cultivars have been selected primarily for fruit color, taste, size, and early maturation; several are seedless. Budded or grafted trees are a sure way of getting a desired type. Common persimmon sends down a deep taproot, which makes it a good species for erosion control but makes it difficult to transplant.

The wood of common persimmon is hard, smooth, and even textured. The hardness and shock resistance make it ideal for textile shuttles and heads for driver golf clubs. The heartwood is used for veneer and specialty items, but most of commercially used persimmon is reported to consist of sapwood.

Unripe fruit and inner bark have been used in the treatment of fever, diarrhea, and hemorrhage. The fruits are used in puddings, cookies, cakes, custard, and sherbet; the dried, roasted, ground seeds have been used as a substitute for coffee. Flowers produce nectar significant for bees in honey production. Leaves and twigs of common persimmon are eaten in fall and winter by white-tailed deer. The fruit is eaten by squirrel, fox, skunk, deer, bear, coyote, raccoon, opossum, and various birds, including quail, wild turkey, cedar waxwing, and catbird.

Adaptation

Common persimmon grows over a wide range of conditions from dry, sterile, sandy woodlands to river bottoms to rocky hillsides. Growth is best on terraces of large streams and river bottoms with clays and heavy loams; usual sites in the Mississippi Delta are wet flats, shallow sloughs, and swamp margins. It thrives in full sun but also is shade-tolerant and can persist in the understory. It is an early pioneer on abandoned and denuded cropland and is common on roadsides and fencerows. Common persimmon often is seen as thickets (derived from root suckers) in open fields and pastures. This species flowers in March-June and fruits in September-November.

Establishment

Fruit may be produced by 10-year-old trees but optimum fruit-bearing age is 25-50 years. Good fruit crops are borne every 2 years. Seeds are dispersed by birds and animals and by overflow water in bottomlands. Persimmon is slow growing and usually does not make a large tree, although it may reach 21-24 meters tall on optimal sites. Trees have been reported to reach 150 years of age.

Management

Common persimmon usually is considered undesirable by growers of closely managed timber stands. It has been controlled by prescribed burns but is also known to decrease with fire exclusion. Roots and rootstocks are killed by severe fires that char the soil; less severe fires top-kill the plant. Vigorous sprouts are produced from the root collar following top-kill by fire or after cutting. Deer occasionally browse the sprouts but cattle usually avoid them. Thickets from root suckers and collar sprouts in pastures may be problematic. Various herbicides are used to kill the plants.

The principal natural defoliators of common persimmon are the webworm (Seiarctica echo) and the hickory horned devil (Citheronia regalis). Small branches severed by a twig girdler (Oncideres cingulata) are often encountered – these wounds allow entry of a wilt fungus, Cephalosporium diospyri, which kills many trees in the southeastern US. An infected tree lives 1-2 years after the wilting appears. Diseased trees should be burned and bruises on healthy trees should be covered with pitch or wax to prevent entry by wind-borne spores.

View persimmon photos

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center & the Biota of North America Program

Great Blue Lobelia

Lobelia siphilitica


Description

General: Bellflower Family (Campanulaceae). This herbaceous perennial is 5 to 15 dm high with frequently branched, erect stems. The alternate leaves are toothed and narrowly oblong to elliptic to lanceolate or oblanceolate. The leaves are 8-12 cm and narrow to a sessile base. The irregular, two-lipped flowers are blue. They appear in long terminal racemes and are from 15-33 mm long. The corolla has a slit on each side near the base. The seeds come in a two-celled, many-seeded capsules opening at the top. The capsules have an ear-lobed or auriculate base.

Uses

Ethnobotanic: The Iroquois used the plant as a cough medicine. The Meskwaki ground up the roots of this plant and used it as an anti-divorce remedy. The mashed roots were secretly put into some common dish, which was eaten by both husband and wife. The Cherokee used a cold infusion of the roots of great blue lobelia and cardinal flower to treat nosebleed. A poultice of the crushed leaves of the plant was used for headache and a warm leaf infusion was good for colds.

Wildlife: Hummingbirds are attracted to the nectar.

Distribution

This plant is found in swamps and wet ground from Maine to Manitoba and Colorado, south to North Carolina and Texas.

Establishment

General: Great blue lobelia is comparatively easy to grow. The capsules can be collected in autumn, usually October. The stalks are cut below the capsules, and placed upside down in a per sack. Once, home, the bag is opened so that the capsules are exposed to the air for a few days. Shake the bag to release the seeds. The capsules that have remaining seeds can be retrieved and crushed with a rolling pin and seeds picked from the litter. The seeds can then be planted right away.

Propagation by seeds: The seeds will germinate without cold stratification, but they need light, so sow the seeds in a flat with a damp fine grade peat lite mix. Keep the flats moist and under lights or in a greenhouse. They should green up in a few weeks. Transplant them in 4-6 weeks into individual pots such as 70 cell plug trays, use the same potting mix and keep fertilizing. The seedlings are tiny at first, so fertilize them every other week with a liquid fertilizer. After another 4 weeks they can be put out in the garden or transplanted into larger pots of 4 to 6 inch diameter. Plant the plants in an outdoor spot that is in full sun or very light shade and never dries completely. Space the plants 8 to 12 inches apart. Add plenty of peat moss when planting and mulch well to keep the soil cool and moist. Protect the plants from deer. Great blue lobelia will usually bloom in the first year. Allow the plants to self-sow. They are heavy feeders, so compost or apply granular fertilizer when they begin growth.

Propagation by cuttings: Take two node stem cuttings (4-6 inches) before the flowers open and remove the lower leaf and half the upper leaf. Treat the cutting with hormodin 2 or roottone and place the cuttings in a sand and perlite medium, cover lightly, water, and keeping the medium moist. Roots will form in 2-3 weeks, but the cuttings need to force a good new crown from the lower node to successfully overwinter.

Management

When well established, clumps of this plant can be divided in the fall or spring by separating the basal offshoots from the mother plant and replanting these divisions and watering them immediately.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Seeds and plants of selected Lobelia siphilitica are available from many nurseries. It is best to plant species from your local area, adapted to the specific site conditions where the plants are to be grown.

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center

Golden Currant

Ribes aureum


Alternate common names

Buffalo currant, fragrant golden currant, golden flowering currant, clove currant, spicebush

Description

General: Currant family (Grossulariaceae). A native shrub 1-3 m tall, spineless, with numerous, erect-arching branches forming an irregular crown up to 6 meters tall or more; bark gray to red-brown; rhizomatous. Leaves deciduous, light green and glossy, alternate or clustered, orbicular or cuneate-ovate with 3-5 rounded lobes, (0.6-)1-2.5(4.7) cm long and wide, cuneate to subcordate at base, glabrous or sometimes lightly hairy beneath. Flowers in short racemes of 5-10(-15), with the fragrance of cloves; long-tubed (from fused sepals) and trumpet-shaped, with 5 yellow sepal lobes spreading at the top, with 5, short, reddish petals inserted at the top of the tube. Fruit a berry 6-10 mm diameter, globose to ellipsoid, ripening from green to yellow to red and finally black to dark purple, with numerous seeds. The common name pertains to the conspicuous, golden flowers; “currant” is the general name for Ribes fruit.

Variation within the species: Ribes odoratum, often considered a distinct species, recognized by its considerably larger flowers, has been placed (re-placed, as var. villosum) as the eastern segment of the broader species.

Var. aureum – (golden currant)

Var. gracillimum (Coville & Britt.) Jepson – (golden currant)

Var. villosum DC. – (fragrant golden currant, buffalo currant, clove currant). Synonym: Ribes odoratum H. Wendl.

Distribution: Var. aureum is widespread in the western US and southeastern Canada, with populations in Ontario and perhaps Quebec, as far south in the US as trans-Pecos Texas. Var. gracillimum is endemic to California. Var. villosum in the central US, from western Texas to Montana and eastward to New York and Vermont; it is absent from the Atlantic seaboard. The species is naturalized in Europe from garden escapes.

Uses

Wildlife: Fruits of Ribes species, including the golden currant, are a valuable food source for songbirds, chipmunks, ground squirrels, as well as numerous wildlife species and other animals.

Ethnobotanic: The sweet and flavorful fruits are full of seeds but are popular for making jam, jelly, pie, and even ice cream. Some western Indian tribes used currants (Ribes species) for making pemmican. The Kiowa Indians believed that snakes were afraid of the currant bush and used it as a snakebite remedy. Other tribes have used the fruits to color clay pots.

Conservation: The fragrant (clove odor), golden-yellow flowers of spring, yellowish to red fall foliage, edible fruits, and wide ecological range make golden currant a valued ornamental shrub for a variety of natural landscapes. Golden currant is easily cultivated from seed or cuttings.

Adaptation

Golden currant grows in grasslands, coniferous forests and woodlands, and riparian and mountain shrub communities. It occurs on floodplains, along streams, in ravines and washes, by springs, and on mountain slopes, at elevations of about 800–2600 meters. It is generally an early to mid-seral species in western coniferous forests. Var. villosum occurs on cliffs, rocky slopes, ravines, bluffs, open hillside, and thicket margins, often in sandy habitats. Golden currant is somewhat shade tolerant and may grow in open, scattered, and dense pine stands, but it is usually suppressed by a denser canopy.

Flowering (March–)April–June, just after appearance of the leaves; fruiting (May–)June–August.

Establishment

Plants of Ribes generally begin fruiting after 3 years. Seeds may remain viable in the soil and duff for many years. Germination is enhanced by scarification, but relatively good germination of golden currant seeds was obtained by stratification at -2.2–2.2 degrees C for 60 days without scarification.

Golden currant transplants well and forms suckers. Plants can also be grown from cuttings. It reproduces vegetatively by rhizomes, sprouting after cutting and fire.

Management

Golden currant can be used to re-vegetate roadsides and disturbed areas, such as mine spoils and rangeland. It is rated mostly good in initial establishment, growth rate. persistence, germination, seed production, ease of planting, and natural spread. It tolerates shearing and may be used on dry, exposed sites in a range of soil types, and it is a good soil stabilizer.

Golden currant is an alternate host for white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola); this and other species of Ribes have been targets of various eradication efforts where white pine is of commercial interest.

Fire top-kills golden currant, but it can survive low- to moderate-severity fire by sprouting from rhizomes. Such fires also scarify soil-stored seed and enhance germination. Severe fire probably kills golden currant and may destroy soil-stored seeds.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Golden currants are readily available from commercial sources. One cultivar (‘Crandall’) has been referred to as "the North Country's answer to Forsythia." Other horticultural selections have been made for hardiness, flower color and density, and fruit taste and size.

Related topic: Growing currants from cuttings

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center & the Biota of North America Program

American Red Raspberry

Rubus idaeus


Alternate Names

raspberry, grayleaf red raspberry, red raspberry

Description

General: Rose family (Roseaceae). American red raspberry is a native, deciduous shrub that grows up to 1.5 meters high with biennial stems. The leaves are pinnately compound, with three to five leaflets. The flowers are white to greenish white, drooping, single or in small grapelike clusters. The fruit is a red raspberry, rounded, two centimeters long and broad, maturing between July through September.

Distribution: American red raspberry is a native North American species that grows across northern Europe to northwestern Asia.

Uses

Ethnobotanic: A tea was made from the leaves and used in the treatment of diarrhea and as an aid in childbirth. The tea has also been known to relieve painful menstrual cramps. Externally, the leaves and roots are used as a gargle to treat tonsillitis and mouth inflammations, sores, minor wounds, burns and varicose ulcers. Europeans in the 17th century regarded the raspberries as an antispasmodic and they made a syrup of the juice which they employed to prevent vomiting. In the 18th century physicians and herbalists deemed the berries useful as a remedy for heart disease . Red raspberries are eaten fresh or in jams and jellies, or added to pies and other baked goods, candies and dairy products to add flavor. Purple to dull blue dye was obtained from the fruit.

Wildlife: American red raspberry provides food and cover for many wildlife species. Grouse, birds, raccoons, coyotes, squirrels, skunks, and chipmunks eat the fruits. Raspberry thickets provide shelter for rabbits and squirrels and service as a nesting spot for many birds.

Adaptation

Rubus idaeus ssp. strigosus is frequently found along the edges of swamps and bogs and is especially commonly found after burnings, clearings, or other disturbances. This species grows good in well-drained loamy soil in a sunny location or in a semi-shaded area. It tolerates a wide range of soil pH texture and requires adequate soil moisture.

Establishment

Propagation by Seed: American red raspberry seeds are best sown in the early autumn in a cold frame. Stored seeds should be stratified for one month at 3ºC. When the seedlings are large enough to handle place them into individual pots and grow them in a cold frame. Plant seedlings in their permanent position in the late spring of the following year.

Propagation by Cuttings: hardwood cuttings can propagate American red raspberry. Cuttings should be propagated in a site out of full sun and sheltered from drying winds. A slow release fertilizer should be added to the rooting medium where the cuttings will stay for a year before transplanting.

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center

Black-Eyed Susan

Rudbeckia hirta


Description

Rudbeckia hirta, black-eyed Susan, is a biennial forb about 1 m tall with yellow ray flowers and dark brown spherical centers. After germination, the seedling grows into a rosette with oblong leaves. Sometimes flower stalks will appear in the first summer, but typically black-eyed Susan blooms from June to September of the second year. After flowering and seed maturation, the plants die. The seed is very small (1,746,000 per pound) and black, about 2 mm long and 0.5 mm in diameter.

Uses

Erosion control: Black-eyed Susan is an important component in critical area treatment plantings along with grasses, legumes, and other forbs when used along road cuts, hillsides, and other areas subject to erosion.

Wildlife: This plant offers protection and food to several song and game birds.

Recreation and beautification: Black-eyed Susan can be used for landscaping and in wildflower gardens.

Adaptation and Distribution

Black-eyed Susan is naturalized in most of the states east of Kansas and the bordering areas of Canada. It is adapted throughout the Northeast on soils with a drainage classification range from well-drained to somewhat poorly drained. It will perform acceptably on droughty soils during years with average or above rainfall, but best growth is achieved on sandy, well drained sites. It is winter hardy in areas where low temperatures are between -30 ° and -20 °F.

Establishment

Black-eyed Susan is easily established with most critical area seeding techniques. Generally ½ lb. of seed per acre is sufficient in mixes with conservation grasses, legumes, and other forbs. Where the intent is to maximize the impact of the forb component, utilize bunchgrasses rather than aggressively spreading grasses such as reed canarygrass or bromegrass. Once established, new seedlings will be produced from the preceding crop; the stand may perpetuate itself indefinitely.

Management

After establishment, competing perennial vegetation should be controlled through the use of mechanical or chemical practices. If competing vegetation is not controlled, one will observe a decrease in the number of black-eyed Susan plants.

Pests and Potential Problems

There are no major insect or disease pests of black-eyed Susan. Stands can be reduced by powdery mildew and damping-off organisms.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

'Golden Jubilee' black-eyed Susan was released by the Big Flats Plant Materials Center in 1985. It is typical of the species except slightly shorter in height with a longer bloom period. It was not selected for its flower size or color. 'Golden Jubilee' is the only cultivar of black-eyed Susan that has proven adaptation throughout the Northeast for conservation use. The original collection area of 'Golden Jubilee' was near Manchester, Vermont. Foundation seed is distributed to commercial producers by the Big Flats PMC in Corning, NY. Black-eyed Susan is readily available from commercial sources.

Source:
USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program

Saguaro Cactus

Carnegiea gigantea


Alternate Names

Giant cactus

Description

General: Cactus Family (Cactaceae). This cactus has an erect, branched stem 3-16 m tall and 30-75 cm in diameter. The arms sometimes number as many as 50. The ribs are prominent and number from 12 to 30. Gray spines densely cover the stem. The funnelform-campanulate flowers are 8.5-12.5 cm and the outer parts are green with lighter borders and the inner parts are petal-like and white. The nocturnal flowers appear singly at the uppermost areoles and they smell like ripe melons. When open, each flower is filled with many white stamens. The fruit is scaly, 25-45 mm in diameter and obovoid with a dark red interior and black seeds that are about 0.75 in diameter.

Distribution: This cactus is found on gravelly slopes, rocky ridges and outwash fans below 1500 m in the Lower Sonoran Zone, from northern Arizona and along the Colorado River in Riverside and Imperial Counties, California, to northern Sonora, Mexico.

Uses

Ethnobotanic: The fruits and the seeds of the saguaro were extensively utilized for food by the Papago, Akimel and Tohono O'odham (also known as Pima), and Seri of Arizona and Mexico. In fact, families established camps in specific cactus areas and in both the Papago and Pima calendars, the saguaro harvest marked the beginning of the new year. The fruits were harvested with a special pole, often made of saguaro ribs with a small crosspiece. Some families still harvest the fruits today. A gruel was traditionally made from the saguaro fruits and used as a medicine by the Pima to make a mother's milk flow after childbirth. The seeds were roasted and ground on a metate and made into a mush. Other parts of the saguaro also were useful. The dead saguaro ribs were used by the Pima as splints to bind injured limbs and as cross pieces in the manufacture of babies' cradles. The Seri in Mexico used a piece of the saguaro rib to make the mainshaft or handle of a compound drill stick used in fire making. The ribs also were used as walking canes and in the making of wattle and daub house walls.

Wildlife: The white-wing dove feeds on saguaro seeds during the fruiting season. Gila woodpeckers and gilded flickers make holes in the trunks and use them as nests. After these are abandoned, they are inhabited by elf owls and starlings.

Establishment

Saguaro cacti need well-drained soil and full sunlight for optimal development. They also cannot withstand prolonged temperatures below freezing. Since saguaros grow so slowly, it is best to obtain nursery-grown plants. Plant saguaros in the ground in October, being sure that the area selected is sheltered from full sun with a shade cloth or by other means through the first summer. Plants should be planted away from compacted areas that receive foot travel or heavy equipment. Young plants can be watered once a month during extended drought, but established plants can survive solely upon natural rainfall.

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center

Red Columbine

Aquilegia canadensis


Alternate Names

Wild columbine, wild honeysuckle, meeting-houses, red-bell, Canada columbine, American columbine, rock-lily, jack-in-trousers, cluckies, Aquilegia australis, Aquilegia canadensis var. australis, Aquilegia canadensis var. coccinea, Aquilegia canadensis var. eminens, Aquilegia canadensis var. flaviflora, Aquilegia canadensis var. hybrida, Aquilegia canadensis var. latiuscula, Aquilegia canadensis var. phippenii, Aquilegia canadensis forma flaviflora, Aquilegia canadensis forma ecalcarata, Aquilegia canadensis forma albiflora, Aquilegia canadensis forma phippenii, Aquilegia coccinea, Aquilegia elegans, Aquilegia eminens, Aquilegia flaviflora, Aquilegia latiuscula, Aquilegia phoenicantha and Aquilegia variegata.

Uses

Ethnobotanic: Seeds from this plant have been used to treat ailments such as headaches, sore throats, stomatitis, heart problems, skin rash or itch caused by poison ivy, kidney and urinary problems, and fever. They have also been used for ceremonial medicines, perfume, and as additives to tobacco. Roots of this plant can be used to treat gastrointestinal ailments.

Landscaping: Red columbine, in native or cultivated forms, is a popular garden perennial because it is hardy, lives approximately 3 to 5 years, and can readily regenerate by seed. It is also useful for woodland and meadow plantings.

Wildlife: Red columbine is pollinated by hummingbirds, which may depend on the plant as an important nectar source. In addition, at least four bee species have been found to be effective pollinators of red columbine in southeastern Wisconsin and northwards.

Description

General: Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae). Red columbine is a perennial herb that has short-lived fibrous roots and a vertical underground stem (caudex). It is 30-80 cm (12-30 in) tall, growing from the caudex. Compound leaves are distinctly divided into obovate leaflets. The flower is downward facing, with all petals prolonged backward into a tubular spur. Sepals are petal-like and typically red. Petals are yellow and become redder at the tip of the spur. Plant growth begins in early spring. This plant blooms from March to July and sets fruit in mid to late summer (June to August). Aboveground portions of Red columbine die back to the caudex in mid to late autumn.

Distribution: Red Columbine is native to eastern and central North America and is found from Nova Scotia to Saskatchewan, south to northern Florida, western Oklahoma and eastern Texas.

Habitat: Red columbine is found in dry to mesic or even low woods, especially along borders or clearings of oak-hickory, oak-maple and maple-basswood forests, black-oak savannas, cedar glades, pine woods, and mixed conifer hardwood forests. It can also be found on wooded to open rocky hillsides, bluffs, calcareous cliffs, outcrops, ledges, banks, beach ridges, gravelly shorelines, roadsides, quarries, and peat bogs.

Adaptation

The USDA Hardiness Zones for red columbine is 3 to 8. It grows in thin soils over granitic bedrock, steep hillsides of thin loess over limestone or quartzite bedrock, and on gravelly glacial marine soils. Because of highly variable genetic plasticity, red columbine populations can occur in a wide range of habitats from rich woods to rocky cliffs.

Establishment

This hardy eastern perennial is propagated by seed. Seed is mature and ready for collection when it turns black in the follicles. Collected seed should be stored in seedbags at temperatures of 5 to 6 degrees Celsius (~41 degrees Fahrenheit) and can be stored up to 4 months. A 3 to 4 week period of moist stratification at 5 degree Celsius may speed up germina-tion time but does not increase germination rate.

Aquilegia canadensis seeds should be hand-sown into germination trays in greenhouse temperatures of 21 to 24 degrees Celsius (70 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit). Germination will take place within 3 to 4 weeks, and supplemental lighting is not necessary. Soil in the germination trays must be kept evenly moist during germination. Fertilization may damage the foliage, so avoid application while in germination trays.

Seedlings can be transplanted into plug cells following a 3-4 week period of root development. Plugs will need to be cut back to allow for air circulation over the media surface. Approximately 2 weeks prior to outplanting, plants should be exposed to lower greenhouse, or frost-free outdoor, temperatures.

Although red columbine prefers soils that are well drained, loose, and slightly acidic, it will grow in medium that is loose and has a mixture of organic matter. It will not bloom during the first growing season.

Germination procedures can begin in August and as late as November. Outplanting should take place in the spring (April). Red columbine can also be direct-seeded at a planting site in the fall or early spring. The general recommendation for wildflower seeding is 11 pounds per acre.

Management

Columbine species are little bothered by powdery mildew or broad mites. The waxy nature of the leaves sheds water-based pesticides. Red columbine is unpalatable to livestock but is sometimes browsed by deer.

Red columbine can survive fire disturbance. Recolonization begins when the underground caudex resprouts following disturbance. Population growth continues by seed.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Examples of cultivars include the ‘Canyon Vista,’ ‘Corbett,’ and ‘Nana’ columbines. These cultivars were developed for garden use to change the color intensity of the red and yellow flowers of the canadensis species.

Native plant material is readily available from a number of growers, wholesalers, and retailers of native seed. The National Plant Materials Center (NPMC) in Shenandoah National Park produces columbine plugs, quart-size plants, and seed.

Source:
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

Sugar Maple

Acer saccharum


Alternate common names

Hard maple, head maple, sugartree, bird’s-eye maple

Description

General: Maple Family (Aceraceae). A native tree with a dense, spreading crown, to 25-37(-40) m in height; bark light gray to gray-brown, rough, deeply furrowed, and darker with age. The leaves are deciduous, opposite, long-petioled, blades 5-11 cm long and about as wide, with 5 shallow, blunt or short-pointed lobes, edges coarsely toothed, dark green and glabrous above, whitish and more or less hairy below, turning intensely red, orange, or yellow in fall. The flowers are small, greenish-yellow, in long-stalked, drooping clusters or racemes, each cluster with 8 to 14 flowers. Most trees are either male or female (the species is essentially dioecious), but both kinds of flowers occur on some trees (technically monoecious), sometimes segregated on different branches. The fruits are winged nutlets (samaras) in a pair, 2-2.5 cm long, clustered on long stalks, red to red-brown. The common name refers to the use of the species for making sugar and syrup.

Variation within the species: Closely similar forms of sugar maple have been recognized at various taxonomic ranks – from varieties to subspecies and species. Three of them are now generally recognized as species, but the differences are technical and it is difficult to be sure of the correct identifications of trees sold as “sugar maple” in the southeastern US.

Florida maple (A. barbatum, including A. floridanum): primarily a species of the Gulf and southeast Atlantic coastal plain, from Texas to North Carolina and Virginia, and up the Mississippi valley as far as Missouri and Illinois.

chalk maple (A. leucoderme): similar in distribution to Florida maple, but not extending into Virginia or up the Mississippi valley.

black maple (A. nigrum): similar in distribution to ‘true’ sugar maple, but somewhat more restricted.

Norway maple (Acer platanoides), an introduced European species, is often planted and looks similar to sugar maple, but Norway maple has broader leaves with drooping lobes, and sap from a broken petiole is milky.

Uses

Sugar maple is the only tree today used for commercial syrup production, as its sap has twice the sugar content of other maple species. The sap, mostly collected in the spring, is concentrated by boiling or reverse osmosis, with about 35-40 liters of sap making 1 liter of syrup. A single tree may produce 5-60 liters of sap per year. Nights below freezing and days at higher than 5 degrees Celsius are needed to ensure good sap flow. Sugar maple was the premier source of sweetener, along with honey, to Native Americans and early European settlers. Native Americans also used sugar maple sap for sugar and candies, as a beverage, fresh or fermented into beer, and soured into vinegar and used to cook meat.

Sugar maple is widely planted as an ornamental or shade tree and many cultivars have been selected, based on variation in growth habit/crown shape, mature height, fall color, leaf shape, and temperature tolerance. The leaves go from green to brilliant yellow, orange, and red in autumn, although there is much variation in fall color within the species. Orange and reds seem to be more intense in New England types, while yellows are more pronounced further west. Interior leaves may be yellow, while outer exposed leaves turn orange-red. The species is best suited to larger sites where soil compaction is not a concern. It also is sometimes used in shelterbelt plantings and has potential value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites.

Sugar maple is an important timber tree valued for its hard, heavy, and strong wood, commonly used to make furniture, paneling, flooring, and veneer. It is also used for gunstocks, tool handles, plywood dies, cutting blocks, woodenware, novelty products, sporting goods, bowling pins, and musical instruments.

White-tailed deer, moose, and snowshoe hare commonly browse sugar maple. Red squirrel, gray squirrel, and flying squirrels feed on the seeds, buds, twigs, and leaves. Porcupines consume the bark and can girdle the upper stem. Songbirds, woodpeckers, and cavity nesters nest in sugar maple. Although the flowers appear to be wind-pollinated, the early-produced pollen may be important to the biology of bees and other pollen-dependent insects because many insects, especially bees, visit the flowers.

Distribution

Sugar maple is widespread in mixed hardwood forests of the eastern United States. It grows from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick westward to Ontario and Manitoba, North Dakota and South Dakota, southward into eastern Kansas into Oklahoma, and southward in the east through New England to Georgia.

Adaptation

Sugar maple most commonly occurs in rich, mesic woods but also grows in drier upland woods. It often grows in canyons, ravines, valleys, stream terraces, and streambanks, but it is occasionally found on dry rocky hillsides, at 500-1700 meters elevation. It is a dominant or codominant in many northern hardwood and mixed mesophytic forests. Common codominants include beech (Fagus grandifolia), birch (Betula spp.), American basswood (Tilia americana), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), white oak (Quercus alba), and yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulifera), but it also grows with various other hardwood species as well as conifers such as pine, spruce, fir, and eastern hemlock.

In the absence of disturbance, forests of jack pine, eastern white pine, eastern hemlock, yellow birch, or red pine are replaced by sugar maple and American basswood. Because repeated disturbance by fire was common in eastern deciduous forests in pre-settlement times, succession to sugar maple-American basswood stands may have taken as long as 650 years in some locations. Increases in sugar maple during the past 50 years in central and Great Lakes hardwood forests have been attributed to fire suppression.

This species flowers in April-June, with fruiting occurring in June-October. Fruits ripen about 12-16 weeks after flowering and begin to fall about 2 weeks after ripening. Leaves generally drop just after seeds have fallen. At the southern edge of the species' range, dead leaves tend to remain on the trees through much of the winter.

Establishment

Minimum seed-bearing age for sugar maple is 30-40 years; maximum seed production is reached after about 60 years of age. Seed is abundantly produced each year but peaks occur mostly from 2-5 years. Seeds are dispersed in fall and germinate in spring. Germination occurs on moist mineral soil or in the litter layer, at an optimal temperature of about 1 C. Seeds can remain viable for up to 5 years but few persist in the seed bank for more than one year. Sugar maple seeds require moist stratification at temperatures slightly above freezing for 35-90 days.

Sugar maple is shade-tolerant but seedlings in dense young stands may survive for only 5 years; those in older stands commonly persist for many years. Such a bank of abundant seedlings and saplings can remain suppressed until gaps are created by windfall or other disturbances, where they typically respond vigorously and rapidly to release. Sugar maples can live for up to 500 years.

Stump sprouting and root sprouting are moderately common means of vegetative reproduction after mechanical disturbance in natural conditions, especially in the northern part of its range, and layering occasionally occurs.

Management

Sugar maples are not particularly good street trees, because they are intolerant of compacted soil, high heat, air pollution, and road salt commonly found in urban environments. They are susceptible to stem and root injury, and verticillum wilt may occur when grown in heavy, poorly drained soils. “Maple decline,” periodic die-backs of relatively large trees in the Northeast, has been attributed to acid rain and other air pollutants, particularly in the last two decades, but its exact causes are not understood.

Even light ground fires may damage the thin bark of sugar maple. Hot fires can kill an entire stand and existing regeneration. The trees sprout poorly after fire. Although communities with sugar maple are relatively resistant to ground fires, a fire hazard may occur in dry years during October, after the leaves have fallen.

Seed can propagate sugar maple; early spring plantings generally produce the best results. Nurserymen usually rely on budding or grafting or sometimes use air layering or rooting of stem cuttings. Use stem tips 35-55 centimeters long taken in mid June with fully elongated bottom leaves; rooting occurs in 4-6 weeks under mist in a 2:1:1 mixture of sandy loam, vermiculite, and peat moss.

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center & the Biota of North America Program

Yellow Pond-Lily

Nuphar lutea


Alternate Names

Brandy-bottle, bullhead lily, Nuphar variegatum, spatterdock, yellow cowlily.

Nuphar lutea is divided into many subspecies. Comparisons of morphological features and interpretations of molecular analysis indicate the name Nuphar lutea should not be used for any North American Nuphar members. The genus Nuphar is now represented by eight distinct species in North America. A key to this new classification is provided in Flora of North America, volume 3, by Kartesz (1997) and Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Northeastern North America, volume 1, by Crow and Hellquist (2000).

Description

General: Water Lily Family (Nymphaeaceae). Yellow pond-lily is an aquatic perennial that grows to be 15 to 60 cm in height and spreads 1 to 2 m on the water surface. Spongy rhizomes anchor into the muddy bottom of a water body and give rise to long, stout stems. Submerged leaves are thin and attached to the rhizomes. Floating leaves are thick, somewhat heart-shaped, wavy along the margins, have up to a 40 cm spread, and are attached to the stems. Flowers emerge on separate stem stalks. They are cup-shaped, yellow-green, with small scale-like petals and numberous stamens and stigmas hidden within the thick showy sepals. Flowers bloom from May to October, partially opening in the morning and closing at night. Spent flowers give way to seed heads that burst upon ripening, broadcasting their seeds over the water surface. Flowers and leaf stems die back to the rhizome in autumn.

Yellow pond-lily may be confused with water lily, Nymphaea species, which have rounder leaves and showier pink to white flowers.

Uses

Ethnobotanic: Native Americans consumed the starchy rootstocks as boiled or roasted vegetables and harvested the seed for grinding into flour. There are some accounts of the root being powdered and used as a poultice.

Wildlife: Yellow pond-lily provides food and shelter for many fish and underwater insects.

Ornamental: Yellow pond-lily flowers and leaves are showy and fragrant. For this reason, it is used as an ornamental planting in water gardens and ponds.

Weediness

This plant may become weedy in some regions or habitats and may displace desirable vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative Extension Service office, or state natural resource or agriculture department regarding its status and use. Weed information is also available from the PLANTS Web site at plants.usda.gov.

Distribution

Yellow pond-lily is native to the Eastern United States, Africa, Temperate Asia, the West Indies, and Europe. It is naturalized in most temperate regions of North America. It occurs in all 50 states except Hawaii.

Habitat

Yellow pond-lily occurs in slow-moving streams, still ponds, and lakes.

Adaptation

The USDA hardiness zones for yellow pond-lily are 4 to 10. It grows in wet, poor sandy soils and performs best in 1 to 3 feet of water in full sun to part shade. It is more tolerant of shade and deep water than Nymphaea species.

It is more often used in large water gardens and ponds where it can produce underwater stems that grow up to 2 m long and can slowly spread to form sizeable colonies.

Establishment

Yellow pond-lily should be grown in containers if they are used for water gardens. For natural ponds, plant rhizomes directly in the muddy bottom if naturalization is desired.

Seeds and Plant Production

Seeds are produced and deposited on the water surface, where they are carried to a germination spot. Yellow pond-lily reproduces more readily by spreading rhizomes.

Control

Although this plant is not considered invasive, it is very difficult to eradicate when not grown in containers because any section of rhizome left behind may sprout new growth.

Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist or county weed specialist to learn what works best in your area and how to use it safely. Always read label and safety instructions for each control method.

Source:
USDA NRCS National Plants Data Center

Common or Annual Sunflower

Helianthus annuus


Alternative Names

Kansas sunflower, mirasol; Helianthus comes from the Greek helios anthos, meaning "sun flower". The species name annuus means “annual.”

Description

General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). The sunflower is an erect, coarse, tap-rooted annual with rough-hairy stems 6-30 dm (2-10 ft) tall. The leaves are mostly alternate, egg-shaped to triangular, and entire or toothed. The flower heads are 7.5-15 cm (3-6 in) wide and at the ends of branches. Ray flowers are yellow and disk flowers are reddish-brown.

Uses

Ethnobotanic: The sunflower is a native domesticated crop. During the last 3,000 years, Indians increased the seed size approximately 1,000 percent. They gradually changed the genetic composition of the plant by repeatedly selecting the largest seeds.

Originally cultivated by North American Indians, it has a long and interesting history as a food plant. Sunflower seeds were and still are eaten raw, roasted, cooked, dried, and ground, and used as a source of oil. Flower buds were boiled. The roasted seeds have been used as a coffee substitute. The Mescalero and Chiricahua Apache made extensive use of wild sunflowers. The Hidatsa used wild verse cultivated sunflowers in the production of cooking oil because the seeds of their smaller flower heads produced superior oil. In the Northeast, sunflowers are part of the Onandaga (Iroquois) creation myth. In the Southwest, the Hopi believe that when the sunflowers are numerous, it is a sign that there will be an abundant harvest. In the prairies, the Teton Dakota had a saying, “when the sunflowers were tall and in full bloom, the buffaloes were fat and the meat good”.

Helianthus seeds were eaten by many California natives, and often ground up and mixed with other seeds in pinole. The sunflower was used for food in Mexico and had reputed medicinal value in soothing chest pains. Francisco Hernandez, an early Spanish explorer, ascribed aphrodisiac powers to the sunflower.

Charles H. Lange, an anthropologist at the University of Texas, wrote that “among the Cochiti, a reliable ‘home remedy’ for cuts and other wounds is the juice of freshly crushed sunflower stems. The juice is smeared liberally over the wounds, bandaged, and invariably results in a speedy recovery, with never a case of infection”.

According to D.E. Moerman, sunflowers were used in the following ways:

·The Cherokee used an infusion of sunflower leaves to treat kidneys.
·The Dakota used an infusion of sunflowers for chest pains and pulmonary troubles.
·The Gros Ventres, Rees, and Mandan used sunflowers ceremonially; oil from the seeds were used to lubricate or paint the face and body.
·The Gros Ventres, Mandan, Rees, and Hidatsa used sunflower seeds as a stimulant, taken on a war party or hunt to alleviate fatigue.
·The Hopi used the sunflower plant as a “spider medicine” and dermatological aid.
·The Navajo ate sunflower seeds to stimulate the appetite.
·The Navaho-Kayenta used the plant for the sun sand painting ceremony and as a disinfectant to prevent prenatal infections caused by the solar eclipse.
·The Navaho-Ramah used a salve of pulverized seed and root to prevent injury from a horse falling on a person and as a moxa of the pith to remove warts.
·The Paiute used a decoction of sunflower root to alleviate rheumatism.
·Pawnee women ate a dry seed concoction to protect suckling children.
·The Pima applied a poultice of warm ashes to the stomach for worms and used a decoction of leaves for high fevers and as a wash for horses’ sores caused by screwworms.
·The Thompson Indians used powdered sunflower leaves alone or in an ointment on sores and swellings.
·The Zuni used a poultice of sunflower root to treat snakebite, along with much ritual and ceremony.

Purple and black dyes extracted from wild sunflowers were used to dye basketry materials. A yellow dye was also derived from the ray flowers. The Hopi Indians grew a sunflower variety with deep purple achenes, and obtained a purple dye by soaking them in water). The dye was used to color basketry or to decorate their bodies.

The Teton Dakotas boiled flower heads from which the involucral bracts had been removed as a remedy for pulmonary troubles. Pawnee women who became pregnant while still nursing a child took a sunflower seed medicine to prevent sickness in the child. In the southwest, Zuni medicine men cured rattlesnake bites by chewing the fresh or dried root, then sucking the snakebite wound.

The wild sunflower was worn in the hair of the Hopi Indians of Arizona during various ceremonies, and carved wooden sunflower disks found at a prehistoric site in Arizona almost certainly were employed in ceremonial rituals.

Agricultural: Early American colonists did not cultivate sunflowers. The sunflower probably went from Mexico to Spain, and from there to other parts of Europe. The Russians developed the Mammoth Russian or Russian Giant sunflower and offered these varieties as seeds, which in 1893 were reintroduced to the United States. Sunflowers are used as a source of vegetable oil. The seeds are used for snacks and for bird food.

Medicinal: Medicinal uses for the sunflower utilized by the Europeans include use as a remedy for pulmonary affections, a preparation of the seeds has been widely used for cold and coughs, in the Caucasus the seeds have served as a substitute for quinine in the treatment of malaria, and sunflower seeds are used as a diuretic and expectorant. Sunflower pith has been used by the Portuguese in making moxa, which was used in the cauterization of wounds and infections. An infusion from the flowers has been used to kill flies.

A variety of terpenoid compounds have been found in Helianthus species, primarily sesquiterpene lactones and diterpenes. These substances probably offer sunflowers protection against some insects.

Horticultural: Sunflowers are cultivated as ornamentals or garden plants, where the blooms are cherished for their beauty, and the seeds can be eaten by both humans and wildlife. Game birds, songbirds, and rodents eat the large, nutritious seeds of sunflowers. These attractive weedy plants are of outstanding value to wildlife in the prairies and other parts of the West. Birds eating the seeds include Wilson snipes, doves, grouse, ring-necked pheasants, quail, blackbirds, bobolinks, lazuli buntings, black-capped chickadees, cowbirds, white-winged crossbills, crows, house finches, goldfinches, purple grackles, horned larks, longspurs, meadowlarks, white-breasted nuthatches, pyrrhuloxias, ravens, sparrows, and tufted titmice. Small mammals who relish the seeds include the least chipmunk, eastern pocket gopher, ground squirrels, lemmings, meadow mice, pocket mice, white-footed mice, prairie dogs, and kangaroo rats. Muskrats eat the stems and foliage. Antelope, deer, and moose browse on the plants.

Industry: Sunflower stalks have been used as fuel, fodder for livestock, food for poultry, and ensilage. In the Soviet Union, after the dried flower stalks have been used for fuel, the ashes are returned to the soil. The seed hulls could be used for “litter” for poultry or returned to the soil or composted. A few years ago, it was found that the hulls could be used in fuels. Today the hulls are used in the Soviet Union in manufacturing ethyl alcohol and furfural, in lining plywood, and in growing yeast. The stems have been used as a source of commercial fiber. The Chinese have used this fiber for the manufacturing of fabrics. Other countries are experimenting with the use of fiber in paper.

Distribution

The sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is a common and widespread roadside weed. It is common in open sites in many different habitats throughout North America, southern Canada, and Mexico at elevations below 1900 m. Helianthus annuus is highly variable as a species, and hybridizes with several other species. The heads and plants are very large in cultivated forms.

Establishment

Sunflowers need full sun. Irrigation is required until they become established.

Seed Propagation: When the soil has warmed up to at least 45ºF (7ºC) in the spring, sow hardy sunflower seeds where they are to flower. Seeds can also be sown in pots or seed trays and either planted out in their final positions in late fall or overwintered in a cold frame to be planted out in spring. This technique is particularly useful in gardens with clay soil that is slow to warm up in spring.

There are two main methods of sowing outdoors in situ: broadcast and in drills. For both, prepare the seedbed first. Dig over the soil to one spade’s depth, then rake over and firm. Broadcast Sowing: Sprinkle seeds thinly and evenly on the surface of the prepared seedbed and rake them in lightly. Label seedbeds, then water the area gently but thoroughly with a fine spray. Sowing in Drills: Using either a trowel tip or the corner of a hoe, mark out shallow drill holes 3-6” (8-15 cm) apart, depending on the ultimate size of the plant. Sow seeds thinly and evenly by sprinkling or placing them along each drill at the appropriate depth. Carefully cover with soil and firm. Label each row and water gently but thoroughly with a fine spray.

To prevent overcrowding, the seedlings usually need to be thinned. To minimize disturbance to a seedling being retained, press the soil around it after thinning the adjacent seedlings. Water the newly establishing seedlings fairly frequently until the roots have developed. Support is required for the sunflower stems. Stakes help support the stem and protect the seedlings from rodent or bird damage. Birds and small mammals love both the sunflower seeds and the tender young seedlings. A scarecrow or netting may be necessary to protect the plants from herbivores.

Management

In pre-European settlement times, the Hidatsa cultivated sunflowers in the following ways:

1) Garden plots were created from wooded and brushy areas in river bottomlands.
2) Brush cleared for planting was spread over the plots and burned, for it was conventional wisdom that burning trees and brush “softened the soil and left it loose and mellow for planting”. Burning also added nutrients to the soil.
Before setting fire to the fields, the dry grass, leaves, and brush were removed from the edges of the fields so the fire wouldn’t spread.
3) Plots were allowed to lay fallow, and were taken out of production for two years to let them rejuvenate.
4) Sunflowers were the first seeds planted in the spring. Planting was done using a hoe. Three seeds were planted in a hill, at the depth of the second joint of a woman’s finger. The three seeds were planted together, pressed into the loose soil by a single motion, with the thumb and first two fingers. The hill was heaped up and patted firm. Sunflowers were planted only around the edges of a field. The hills were placed eight or nine paces apart.
There were several varieties of sunflowers; black, white, red, and striped colors occurred in the seeds.
5) Seeds were harvested by spreading sunflower heads on the roof to dry. The heads were laid face downward, with the backs to the sun. After the heads had dried for four days, the heads were threshed by laying them on the floor face downwards and beating them as a stick. An average threshing filled a good-sized basket, with enough seed left over to make a small package.
6) Parched sunflower seeds were pounded in the corn mortar to make meal. Sunflower meal was used in a dish called four-vegetables-mixed; it included beans, dried squash, pounded parched sunflower seed, and pounded parched corn.
7) Sunflower seed balls were made of sunflower seed meal. In the olden times, every warrior carried a bag of soft skin with a sunflower-seed ball, wrapped in a piece of buffalo-heart skin. When worn with fatigue or overcome with sleep and weariness, the warrior took out his sunflower-seed ball, and nibbled at it to refresh himself.
Each garden plot was “owned” and tended by a woman who cleared it. It was kept cleared of weeds and birds were chased off.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Cultivars: Apache Brown Striped, Autumn Beauty Hybrids, Aztec Gold, Bellezza d’Autuno, Big Smile, Black Oil, Color Fashion Hybrids, Confection, Daisetsuzan, Discovery, Evening Sun, Floristan, Full Sun, Fun Sun, Gloriosa Polyheaded, Gold & Silver, Gray-Stripe, Hallo, Happy Face, Havasupai Striped, Henry Wilde, Holiday, Hopi Dye, Inca Jewels, Incredible, Italian White, Lion’s Mane, Lemon Queen, Luna, Mammoth Russian, Monster, Moonwalker, Music Box, Orange Sun, Park’s Velvet Tapestry, Paul Bunyan, Peredovik, Piccolo, Provance Hybrids, Silverleaf, Sonja, Sun Hybrids, Sunbeam, Sunbright, Sunburst Hybrids, Sunrise, Sunset, Sunspot, Taiyo, Tangina, Teddy Bear, Tarahumara White, Valentine, Vanilla Ice, Velvet Queen, and Zebulon.

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center

Flowering Dogwood

Cornus florida


Description

Cornus florida, flowering dogwood, is a small, bushy tree which rarely attains a height of more than 40 feet or a diameter of 12 to 18 inches. The leaves are opposite one another and from 3 to 6 inches long. The deeply ridged and broken bark resembles alligator hide. Flowering dogwood has large, showy, deeply notched bracts, 4 of which surround each cluster of inconspicuous perfect flowers, in bloom from May to June. The fruit clusters on this shrub-like tree are scarlet red.

One way to tell if a small tree or shrub is a dogwood is to gently snap a leaf in two and observe if a “latex” or stretchy substance spans the leaf where the veins were broken.

Uses

Wildlife: The fruit is choice fall and winter food of the gray squirrel and fox squirrel, bobwhite, cedar waxwing, cardinal, flicker, mockingbird, robin, wild turkey, and woodpecker. The leaves and twigs are choice food for the white-tailed deer. It is not an important nesting plant.

Ornamental: It is an important ornamental tree used around homes and office buildings because of its striking display when it is in full bloom.

Adaptation and Distribution

Flowering dogwood is adapted to most upland sites but grows best on rich, well-drained soils on middle and lower slopes. It develops best as an understory species in association with other hardwoods.

Flowering dogwood is distributed throughout the eastern United States.

Establishment

Plants can be grown from seed planted 1/2 inch deep in late winter.

Management

In tree harvest or timber stand improvement operations, specify that 5 or 6 dogwoods per acre be left in the forest for aesthetic purposes and as a food source for squirrels, turkeys, deer, and non-game birds. Leave all dogwoods along highways and roads.

Pests and Potential Problems

There are several wood boring insects and canker diseases that attack the main stem while others invade the branches and leaves.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Seedlings can be purchased from most commercial hardwood nurseries.

Source:
USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program

Advice on thinning fruit

As the proprietor of a small loquat, fig, and lemon orchard (totalling 4 trees - well, the lemon's more of a shrub at this point) I was wondering about the best way to ensure the trees produce good-sized fruit. The loquats in particular tend to yield bunches of many small fruit with are largely filled with pits surrounded by a thin layer of flesh, and as a result aren't much fun to eat. I knew thinning was the recommended way to improve fruit size and quality, but wasn't sure how to go about it.

Fortunately I was able to find this article by Alice Ramirez from a 1997 issue of Flower & Garden Magazine, appropriately entitled "Thin That Fruit." The article notes that in addition to yielding a harvest of larger fruit with a better ratio of flesh to fruit, thinning wll also improve fruit flavor (those loquats have been pretty bland lately) and improve the health of the tree, since it's less likely to be overburdened by too many fruit and lose branches as a result.

It also recommends removing all the fruit from a small, developing plant, causing it to channel all its energy into developing the root and branch systems that will allow it to bear productively in future years. (I've just done this with a blueberry bush I planted recently - it wasn't exactly fun, since I love blueberries, but hopefully I'll be amply repaid next season.)

Other benefits of thinning include reducing the likelihood a tree will bear in alternate years, and the risk of "June drop," when summer heat stress causes a tree to drop all of its crop at once.

While most fruit trees can be thinned when the fruit is in the very early stages of development, Ramirez notes that loquats should be thinned at the flower stage by removing every other flower cluster. So that's at the top of my list for next growing season - until then, I'll just make do with gnawing on these pint-size loquats. (The birds and the squirrels certainly don't seem to mind them - maybe I'm just too picky.)

A gardener who happens to pitch for the Mets

The New York Times has a great article today about Pedro Martinez, renowned pitcher for the New York Mets, who it turns out is an avid gardener when not on the mound at Shea Stadium. Martinez owns an eight acre estate in Greenwich, Connecticut landscaped with dogwoods, crabapples, tulips, two waterfalls and a pond.

Martinez says that gardening helps him relax, focus, and heal from the serious wear-and-tear of major league pitching: "If something hurts, it disappears when you are in the garden. It's about deep thinking, about letting go."

According to the article Martinez's favorite flowers are orchids, found throughout his native Dominican Republic, which fascinate him because of their fragility. Strangely, he makes no mention of pitcher plants, but I'm sure he must appreciate those as well.

The gardening really must be helping, because this plant-loving pitcher has led the Mets to one of their best seasons ever. Turns out the secret to a mean curve ball may be a green thumb. It won't be long before we see Randy Johnson of the Yankees out planting dahlias.

Oxalis - A Cute Little Curse

Here in the Bay Area of California where I live almost anyone with a piece of dirt can tell you about oxalis, or wood sorrel, a cute shamrock-leaved little plant that grows and spreads with amazing speed. In fact, it's also called a shamrock, and the first time I saw it leprechauns and St. Patrick's Day did indeed spring to mind. The next several times I saw it, however, my mind turned to less kindly thoughts of eradication.

Some would charitably describe oxalis as a ground-cover. Most, including me, would probably call it a weed. Not long after it gets a foothold in your garden, you'll suddenly discover it's taken over. As Sunset's Western Garden Book puts it mildly, oxalis "Can be somewhat invasive in its favored woodland conditions." Actually, it appears to be invasive in plenty of other conditions: lawn conditions, garden conditions, that-damp-spot-under-the-hose conditions, and on and on.

There are quite a few varieties of oxalis, sporting yellow, light violet, or white flowers, all of which are very pretty to look at, but which rapidly lose their appeal as they appear by the hundreds in places where you were trying valiantly to grow something else. If you have an oxalis/wood sorrel/shamrock infestation, a great online resource, the Berkeley Parents Network has the following advice from their aptly-titled discussion "Oxalis - demon weed from hell." (No, you don't have to be a parent to use the site :-) It comes from Anthony Garza, Supervisor of Horticulture at the UC Botanical Garden in Berkeley - so he knows his stuff:

"Really, SPRAY [Roundup herbicide] and PULL and MULCH again and again if you wish to have anything resembling a landscaped yard that is under control. Organic controls would exclude the Roundup, and most have not had any long-term luck with those methods. You will have to concede with living with a certain level of infestation if you are not willing to use a glyphosate-based herbicide." Read Anthony's complete post.

Or if that's too much trouble, you could just decide to sit back and enjoy the invasion. There are certainly a lot uglier weeds than oxalis...here's a great illustration of one variety, Goat's Foot Wood Sorrel:


(Image courtesy of the US Department of Agriculture's National Agricultural Library)

Why are strawberries called strawberries?

For those curious about the etymology of this beloved little fruit, more than one explanation of the name's origin has been provided. Some say that the prefix "straw" refers to the straw often used as a mulch around the plants, intended to protect the roots, hold in moisture, and help protect the plants from mold, rot, and foraging creepy-crawlies. For instance, the Western Garden Book advises a winter mulch consisting of a "4-6 inch layer of straw or other light, weed-free, organic material."

The all-knowing Wikipedia offers this explanation of the name's origins: "The name is derived from Old English streawberige which is a compound of streaw meaning "straw" and berige meaning "berry". The reason for this is unclear. It may derive from the strawlike appearance of the runners, or from an obsolete denotation of straw, meaning "chaff", referring to the scattered appearance of the achenes [the little seed-like nodes on the outside of the berry that crunch when you eat it]."

"Interestingly, in other Germanic countries there is a tradition of collecting wild strawberries by threading them on straws. In those countries people find straw-berry to be an easy word to learn considering their association with straws. [Why you would go to trouble of threading berries onto a straw is beyond me, but perhaps it makes for easy hanging and drying if you want to preserve the fruit].

There is an alternative theory that the name derives from the Anglo-Saxon verb for "strew" (meaning to spread around)... The name might have come from the fact that the fruit and various runners appear "strewn" along the ground."

I think this last theory is the best one, since strawberries are quite a rambling plant; I've come across well-established patches of interconnected berry plants being used as a ground cover, and they really do appear to have been strewn across the ground. But I'm also using straw as a mulch at the moment, so that theory's pretty persuasive as well.

Growing currants from cuttings

I recently had the good fortune to be given a few cuttings from a Golden Currant (Ribes aureum), a handsome berry bush native here in California. Since I'd really like to establish one or two of these shrubs in my backyard, and hopefully enjoy a bountiful currant harvest in the not-too-distant future, I've been carefully trying to get the cuttings to take root.

To figure out the best way to root my cuttings, I consulted the California gardener's bible, Sunset's Western Garden Book. The first step was to obtain some rooting hormone, which you should be able to find at any good nursery. After lightly wetting the stem of each cutting, I dunked it in the powdered hormone until it was thoroughly coated. I then dug a two inch deep hole in a container of damp potting soil I had on hand for the purpose. I inserted the first cutting in the hole, gently pressed the soil in around it, and then did the same for my other cuttings, spacing them a few inches apart in the container.

After lightly watering the cuttings in their new soil bed, I covered the pot with a plastic bag that I secured around the top with a rubber band. According to the garden book, this will help maintain humidity and keep the cuttings moist. Following Sunset's instructions, I've also been removing the bag for a short period each day to give the cuttings some air, and have also been setting them out in the sun in the backyard, on the principle that plants like sun. (A shocking idea, I know.)

It's been a little over two weeks and my cuttings are just beginning to show signs of new leaves emerging. Apparently the emergence of leaves coincides with the growth of roots, so once a few full-fledged leaves have appeared I should have baby currant plants for the garden. I expect it'll be at least another couple weeks before I know for sure if they've put down roots...as you've probably guessed by now, this whole rooting process takes quite a bit of patience. So until I have thriving golden currant plants in my backyard, I'll just have to make do with admiring a photo:

Golden Currant
Ribes aureum

Photo courtesy of the US Department of Agriculture

Related topic: Golden Currant Fact Sheet

Beach Strawberry

Fragaria chiloensis


Alternative Names
Pacific beach strawberry. This species is recognized as having four subspecies: chiloensis, lucida, pacifica, and sandwicensis. Frageria chiloensis ssp. sandwicensis is known as the Sandwich beach strawberry.

Use

Ethnobotanic: This strawberry produces many more fruits than the wood strawberry and has a great flavor. It was gathered and eaten raw by the Makah, Quileute, and Quinault of western Washington. It was also harvested for its fruit by the native peoples of Alaska and coastal British Columbia. The Wiyot, Pomo, and other tribes in California savored the fruits. The plant is also used medicinally by the Quileute by chewing the leaves and spitting them on burns.

Wildlife: The Portola woodrat and the valley quail eat the fruit and leaves of wild strawberries.

Description

General: This herbaceous perennial plant spreads by seed and also by short rhizomes and leafless stolons. The toothed leaves are leathery, basal with a petiole generally 2-20 cm. They appear in leaflets of 3 and are glabrous (not hairy) above. The flowers have 5 white petals that are 10-18 mm, with numerous pistils and 20-35 stamens. The five bractlets are unlobed. The red fleshy fruit is covered with achenes.

Distribution

This plant is found below 200 m, in dune and grassland communities of coastal California. It is found from Alaska to coastal South America and Hawaii.

Establishment

Dig up plantlets or runners and plant them in pots in summer. Be sure to cover the stems and roots with soil. Place the pots in a hothouse to establish good, strong roots. Water the plants or runners and keep them moist. Plant the plants outdoors in the ground in the fall or winter after the rains have started. They should be planted in full sun in a light, loose soil, about ten inches apart. It will not take long for the plants to make a complete ground cover. Lightly fertilize the plants during the growing season. Note that those plants that have bigger flowers usually have less fruit and those with smaller flowers have more fruit. Protect the plants from gophers, deer, squirrels, raccoons, and other wildlife.

Management

Keep the runners pruned back because they can be invasive. It is necessary to divide the patch every three to four years and start a new patch for increased vigor. Younger plants are more vigorous and produce more berries.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Seeds and plants of selected Fragaria cultivars are available from many nurseries. It is best to plant species from your local area, adapted to the specific site conditions where the plants are to be grown.

Wood Strawberry

Fragaria vesca


Alternate Names

Woodland strawberry; California strawberry

Uses

Ethnobotanic: The fruit was gathered by native peoples throughout the United States and Canada. Such cultural groups include the Micmac, Huron, Potawatomi, Creek, Blackfoot, Iroquois, and many other groups. The fruit was eaten raw and not preserved by California Indian tribes including the Coast Yuki and the Karok. Furthermore, a tea was made from the leaves by the Upriver Halkomelem and Sechelt of British Columbia, the Cowlitz of Washington and the Micmac of the maritimes.

Wildlife: The Portola woodrat and the valley quail eat the fruit and leaves of wild strawberries.

Description

General: Rose Family (Rosaceae). This herbaceous perennial plant spreads by seed, short rhizomes and leafless stolons. The toothed leaves are thin and basal with a petiole generally 3-12 cm. They appear in leaflets of 3 and are sparsely hairy above. The flowers have 5 white petals with numerous pistils and 20-35 stamens. The five bractlets are often 2-lobed. The red fleshy fruit is covered with achenes.

Distribution

The wood strawberry is found in northwestern California, the Cascade Ranges, the Sierra Nevada, central-western California, San Bernardino Mountains, Peninsular Ranges, to eastern North America, and south to Baja California and also Europe.

Establishment

Adaptation: This plant is found below 2000 m in partial shade of closed-cone pine, evergreen, mixed conifer forests, and chaparral and has a very wide distribution.

Planting: Dig up plantlets or runners and plant them in pots in summer, make sure to cover the stems and roots in soil. Place the pots in a hothouse to establish good, strong roots. Water the plants or runners and keep them moist. Plant the seedlings outdoors in the ground in the fall or winter after the rains have started. They should be planted in full sun in a light, loose soil, about ten inches apart. It will not take long for the plants to make a complete ground cover. Lightly fertilize the plants during the growing season. Note that those plants that have bigger flowers usually have less fruit while those with smaller flowers have more fruit. Protect the plants from gophers, deer, squirrels, raccoons, and other wildlife.

Management

Keep the runners pruned back because they can be invasive. It is necessary to divide the patch every 3 to 4 years and start a new patch for increased vigor. Younger plants are more vigorous and produce more berries.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

The wood strawberry is somewhat available through native plant nurseries within its range.

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center

Evergreen Huckleberry

Vaccinium ovatum


Alternate Names

California huckleberry, shot huckleberry, huckleberry, winter huckleberry, evergreen huckleberry

Uses

Ethnobotanic: Tribes in British Columbia and western Washington use the berries of evergreen huckleberry. These tribes include the Sechelt, Comox, Straits, Halkomelem, Lower Nlaka'pamux Salish, Nuu-chah-nulth (Vancouver Island's West Coast), and the Quinault of Washington. Evergreen huckleberries were well liked and people often traveled great distances to obtain them. The berries ripen late in the year, around October or November. They are the last fruits to be gathered in the season round and are said to be even tastier after freezing. The berries are eaten fresh, usually with oil. The berries are also sun or smoke dried, partly mashed, pressed into cake form, and wrapped in leaves or bark. Today they are made into jam or used in cooking.

The leaves and berries are high in vitamin C. The leaves and finely chopped stems contain quinic acid, a former therapeutic for gout said to inhibit uric acid formation but never widely used because of mixed clinical results. The leaves have been widely used to lower or modify blood sugar levels. Many herbalists maintain that huckleberry leaf tea may be useful in stabilizing blood sugar levels in cases of diabetes, and medical research has shown that consumption of the leaf extract decreases blood sugar levels shortly after administration. Taken on regular basis, huckleberry tea will gradually help alleviate both glycosuria and hyperglycemia and appears to have a beginning, but useful effect as an adjunct treatment to diabetes mellitus. The leaves are believed also to stimulate appetite, and have astringent and antiseptic qualities that are useful in urinary disorders.

Horticulture: Evergreen huckleberry is an excellent horticultural choice due to its beautiful, glossy, evergreen foliage and tolerance of a wide range of light levels. The foliage is often used in flower arrangements.

Wildlife & Livestock: The foliage of evergreen huckleberry is browsed by elk and deer. Flowers attract butterflies. For several species of grouse, huckleberries are among the most important summer and early fall foods. Berries are eaten by chipmunks, black bear, mice, scarlet tanagers, bluebirds, thrushes, and other songbirds. Deer and rabbit browse freely on the plants. Because of their food value to wildlife and their dense shrubby growth, evergreen huckleberry is worthy of inclusion in hedgerows.

In some localities goats and deer crop evergreen huckleberry rather closely, utilizing 30 to 40% of the leafage and current twigs. Sheep crop it somewhat less closely but it enters into their diet to a considerable extent in late summer and autumn. The browse rating is fair to poor for sheep, goats, and deer; poor to useless to cattle; and useless for horses.

Description

General: Heath Family (Ericaceae). This erect, evergreen shrub is stout, from 0.5-3 m tall. The glossy green leaf blades are 2-5 cm, ovate, leathery, serrate, with glandular hairs on the lower surface. The umbel-like inflorescence emerges from the leaf axils. Urn-shaped flowers are bright pink. The berries are 6-9 mm, purplish-black. Evergreen huckleberry does not generally root easily.

Distribution

Evergreen huckleberry grows from the west side of the Cascades in Washington to the coast of British Columbia, to the redwood area of California. It is sporadic south to Santa Barbara, California and in the coast ranges to the central Sierra Nevada Mountains.

Establishment

Adaptation: Vaccinium ovatum grows in edges and clearings of coniferous woods, at elevations from 3-800 m. Evergreen huckleberry can also be found near beaches in the salt spray zone. This huckleberry grows in moist to slightly dry soils. It will grow in full sun to full shade, although the plants prefer some shade.

Propagation: Evergreen huckleberry can be difficult to propagate or transplant, but it is available in some nurseries. It can be grown from cuttings, from seed, or by layering. Huckleberry cuttings should be taken while the plant is dormant, from November to April. Their rooting success is fairly sporadic.

Evergreen huckleberry requires excessive drainage and acidic soils to become established. It does best in full or partial shade; it may tolerate morning and winter sun.

Live Plant Collections: Evergreen huckleberry is propagated by cuttings from fully matured shoots taken in fall and winter, when the plant is dormant. Cuttings made from the previous year's growth taken the third week in April rooted 100% (Vancouver, B.C.). Application of 0.3 to 0.4% IBA talc to the freshly cut stem surface and basal heat (21°C; 70° F) to potted plants will enhance rooting.

Young plants can be salvaged, but they should be transplanted when they are less than one foot tall. Frequently, these small plants will turn out to be new shoots of a mature plant reviving from deer browsing or logging, and will die from lack of roots.

Seed Collections: Berries should be collected when they are ripe (from August to September or later). The blue-black fruit is easily collected by hand picking or by beating the bush over a large bucket. Following collection, chill the fruit at 10°C for several days. Clean seeds by macerating and floating off the pulp and unsound seed. Clean seeds carefully; they are minuscule, so you may want to use pantyhose or cheesecloth to strain the seed from the pulp.

Seeds dried at 15-21°C for two days can be stored in a refrigerator for up to 12 years. Fresh seeds not planted in the fall may germinate better if cold stratified for 1-3 months. Stored seeds germinates well when exposed to alternating temperature and light regimes of 28°C light for 14 hours a day and 13°C dark for 10 hours.

Fresh or stored and cold-stratified seeds can be sown directly into flats or small pots (a salt shaker can be used for sowing). Plant in a mixture of sand and peat moss. Seedlings will begin to emerge in a month and will continue to emerge for a long period thereafter. Transplant seedlings into larger pots 6 to 7 weeks after emergence. Plant outside after the first growing season. Seedlings are slow growing, and it may take 2-3 years for a nursery-sized plant to develop.

Management

This plant grows very rapidly in moist, shady conditions. If summer drought occurs, the plants should be watered so roots are kept fairly moist.

Traditional Resource Management: This includes the following: 1) occasional burning to stimulate new growth; 2) pruning the branches after picking the berries to stimulate new growth and fruit production the next growing season; and 3) ownership of red huckleberry shrubs provides the basis for careful tending and sustainable yield of valued resources.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

This species is readily available from native plant nurseries within its range.

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center & Oregon Plant Materials Center

Highbush Blueberry

Vaccinium corymbosum


Alternate Names (for several highbush species)

Northern highbush blueberry, southeastern highbush blueberry, Maryland highbush blueberry, black highbush blueberry, American blueberry, New Jersey blueberry, rabbiteye blueberry, swamp blueberry, tall huckleberry, mayberry, whortleberry

Uses

Fruit production: V. corymbosum, highbush blueberry, a native North American shrub cultivated throughout the country, is the major blueberry-producing species in commerce. More than 50 cultivars have been developed, primarily for commercially valuable fruit characteristics and seasonality.

Landscaping: A few selections are used in landscaping, especially as plantings in wet areas or to attract wildlife.

Food: Highbush blueberries are eaten raw, smoke­dried, sun-dried, boiled, and baked in a wide variety of culinary settings. They have one of the highest concentrations of iron of the temperate fruits.

Wildlife: Blueberries provide important summer and early fall food for numerous species of game birds, songbirds, and mammals.

Description

Highbush blueberry is a native, upright, 6-12 feet tall, crown-forming shrub. The common name refers to the relatively tall stature of these plants. Twigs are yellow-green (reddish in winter) and covered with small wart-like dots. Leaves are deciduous, alternate, simple, elliptic or ovate, 1 to 3½ inches long and slightly waxy above with pubescence (hairs) at least on the veins beneath. The white or pink-tinged flowers are small and urn-shaped with 5 petals, and occur 8 to 10 per cluster. Flowering occurs February to June, sporadically in the southern portion of its range; fruiting occurs April to October, about 62 days after flowering. Fruits are ¼ - ½” blue-black berries with many seeds.

Adaptation and Distribution

Widespread in eastern North America, the highbush blueberry has been introduced outside of its natural range for commercial berry production. The most common native habitat is in moist or wet peat of moderate to high acidity – in and around marshes, swamps, lakes and flood-prone areas. V. corymbosum also occurs in drier areas such as dunes and barrier beaches, rocky hillsides, oak woods, and pinewoods.

Establishment

Highbush blueberry produces abundant fruit every year. Highbush blueberry (V. corymbosum) is self-fertile, but cross-pollination increases fruit set and results in larger, earlier berries with more seeds (Agriculture Western Australia 2000). Other species of the complex are partially or completely self-incompatible. Bees are the primary pollinators. The seeds may be widely dispersed by birds and mammals, but germination can be reduced up to 15% after passing through an animal gut. In the southern portion of its range, highbush blueberry seeds have thick seed coats and require cold stratification before germination. Those from northern regions produce thinner seed coats and germinate in the autumn after dispersal.

Plants of highbush blueberry can be propagated by seeds or cuttings.

Occasionally sprouting has occurred from root-crowns after top kill by fire or disturbance. Plants have also been noted to produce root sprouts that emerge 1-2 meters away from the parent plant.

Management

Ideal soil for cultivation is moist, high in organic matter, highly acidic (4.5-5.5), and well-drained. The plants grow in full sun to partial shade, but those in open sites produce more flowers and have brighter fall foliage color.

Pests and Potential Problems

Insects, diseases and wildlife pests need to be controlled in commercial production.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Improved varieties for commercial berry production are readily available. Non-selected materials for conservation use are also available from nurseries.

Source:
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center & the Biota of North America Program